Aristotle
the orator that of persuading his hearers. If there be more than one
way of accomplishing the end, he deliberates by which out of these
several means he can achieve it best and most easily: proceeding from
the end itself first to the proximate cause of that end, then to the
cause immediately preceding that cause, and so backwards until he
arrives at the primary cause, which is either an action of his own,
within his own means, or something requiring implements and
assistance beyond his power to procure. This is a process of
analysis, similar to that which is pursued by geometricians in
seeking the way of solving a problem: they assume the figure with the
required conditions to be constructed: they then take it to pieces,
following back the consequences of each separate condition which it
has been assumed to possess. If by this way of proceeding they arrive
at some known truth, their problem is solved; if they arrive at some
known untruth, the problem is insoluble. That step which is last
arrived at in the analysis, is the first in the order of production
(iii. 3). When a man in carrying back mentally this deliberative
analysis arrives at something manifestly impracticable, he desists
from farther deliberation: if he arrives at something within his
power to perform, he begins action accordingly. The subject of
_deliberation_, and the subject of _deliberate preference_, are the
same, but the latter represents the process as accomplished and the
result of deliberation decided.
We take counsel and deliberation (as has been said), not about the
end, but about the means or the best means towards the end assumed.
We _wish for the end_ ([Greek: ê( bou/lêsis tou= te/lous
e)/sti]--iii. 4). Our wish is for good, real or apparent: whether for
the one or the other, is a disputed question. Speaking generally, and
without reference to peculiar idiosyncrasies, the real good or _the
good_ is the object of human wishes: speaking with reference to any
particular individual, it is his own supposed or apparent good. On
this matter, the virtuous man is the proper judge and standard of
reference: that which is really good appears good to him. Each
particular disposition has its own peculiar sentiment both of what is
honourable and of what is agreeable (iii. 4): the principal
excellence of the virtuous man is, that he in every variety of
circumstances perceives what is truly and genuinely good; whereas to
most men, pleasure proves a deception, and appears to be good, not
being so in reality.
Both virtue and vice consists in _deliberate preference_, of one or
of another course of action. Both therefore are voluntary and in our
own power: both equally so. It is not possible to refer virtuous
conduct or vicious conduct to any other beginning except to
ourselves: the man is the cause of his own actions, as he is the
father of his own children. It is upon this assumption that all legal
reward and punishment is founded: it is intended for purposes of
encouragement and prevention, but it would be absurd to think either
of encouraging or preventing what is involuntary, such as the
appetite of hunger and thirst. A man is punished for ignorance, when
he is himself the cause of his own ignorance, or when by reasonable
pains he might have acquired the requisite knowledge. Every man above
the limit of absolute fatuity ([Greek: komidê=| a)naisthê/tou]) must
know that any constant repetition of acts tends to form a habit: if
then by repetition of acts he allows himself to form a bad habit, it
is his own fault. When once the bad habit is formed, it is true that
he cannot at once get rid of it: but the formation of such a habit
originally was not the less imputable to himself (iii. 5). Defects of
body also which we bring upon ourselves by our own negligence or
intemperance, bring upon us censure: if they are constitutional and
unavoidable, we are pitied for them. Some persons seem to have
contended at that time, that no man could justly be made responsible
for his bad conduct: because (they said) the end which he proposed to
himself was good or bad according to his natural disposition, not
according to any selection of his own. Aristotle seems to be somewhat
perplexed by this argument: nevertheless he maintains, that whatever
influence we may allow to original and uncontrollable nature, still
the formation of our habits is more or less under our own concurrent
control; and therefore the end which we propose to ourselves being
dependent upon those habits, is also in part at least dependent upon
ourselves (iii. 5)--our virtues and our vices are both voluntary.
The first five chapters of the third Book (in which Aristotle
examines the nature of [Greek: to\ e(kou/sion, to\ a)kou/sion,
proai/resis, bou/lêsis], &c.) ought perhaps to constitute a Book by
themselves. They are among the most valuable parts of the Ethics. He
has now established certain points with regard to our virtues
generally.
1. They are mediocrities ([Greek: meso/têtes]).2. They are habits,
generated by particular actions often repeated.3. When generated,
they have a specific influence of their own in facilitating the
performance of actions of the same class. 4. They are in our own
power originally, and voluntary.5. They are under the direction of
right reason.
It is to be observed that our actions are voluntary from the
beginning to the end--the last of a number of repeated actions is no
less voluntary than the first. But our habits are voluntary only at
the beginning--they cease to be voluntary after a certain time--but
the permanent effect left by each separate repetition of the action
is inappreciable (iii. 5).
Aristotle then proceeds to an analysis of the separate
virtues--Courage, Temperance, Liberality, Magnificence, Magnanimity,
Gentleness, Frankness, Simplicity, Elegant playfulness, Justice,
Equity, &c. He endeavours to show that each of these is a certain
mediocrity--excess lying on one side of it, defect on the other.
There are various passages of Aristotle which appear almost identical
with the moral doctrine subsequently maintained by the Stoic school:
for example--iii. 6--"In like manner he ought not to fear penury, nor
sickness, nor in any way such things as arise not from moral baseness
nor are dependent on himself."
The courageous man is afraid of things such as it befits a man to
fear, but of no others: and even these he will make head against on
proper occasions, when reason commands and for the sake of _honour_,
which is the end of virtue (iii. 7). To fear nothing, or too little,
is rashness or insanity: to fear too much, is timidity: the
courageous man is the mean between the two, who fears what he ought,
when he ought, as he ought, and with the right views and purposes
(_ib._). The [Greek: moicho\s] (adulterer) exposes himself often to
great dangers for the purpose of gratifying his passion: but
Aristotle does not hold this to be courage. Neither does he thus
denominate men who affront danger from passion, or from the thirst of
revenge, or from a sanguine temperament--there must be deliberate
preference and a proper motive, to constitute courage--the motive of
honour (iii. 8).
The end of courage (says Aristotle) is in itself pleasant, but it is
put out of sight by the circumstances around it: just as the prize
for which the pugilist contends is in itself pleasurable, but being
of small moment and encompassed with painful accessories, it appears
to carry with it no pleasure whatever. Fatigue, and wounds and death
are painful to the courageous man--death is indeed more painful to
him, inasmuch as his life is of more value: but still he voluntarily
and knowingly affronts these pains for the sake of honour.
This is painful: "but pleasure is not to be anticipated in the
exercise of all the different virtues, except in so far as the
attainment of the end is concerned" (iii. 9).
(This is perfectly true: but it contradicts decidedly the remark
which Aristotle had made before in his first Book (i. 8) respecting
the inherent pleasure of virtuous agency.)
Courage and Temperance are the virtues of the instincts ([Greek: tô=n
a)lo/gôn merô=n]--iii. 10). Temperance is the observance of a
rational medium with respect to the pleasures of eating, drinking,
and sex. Aristotle seems to be inconsistent when he makes it to
belong to those pleasures in which animals generally partake (iii.
10); for other animals do not relish intoxicating liquors: unless
indeed these are considered as ranking under drink generally. The
temperate man desires these pleasures as he ought, when he ought,
within the limits of what is honourable, and having a proper
reference to the amount of his own pecuniary means: just as right
reason prescribes (iii. 11). To pursue them more, is excess: to
pursue them less, is defect. There is however, in estimating excess
and defect, a certain tacit reference to the average dispositions of
the many.
"Wherefore the desires of the temperate man ought to harmonize with
reason; for the aim of both is the honourable. And the temperate man
desires what he ought, and as he ought, and when: and this too is the
order of reason" (iii. 12).
All virtuous acts are to be _on account of the honourable_--thus
Aristotle says that the donations of the [Greek: a)/sôtos] (prodigal)
are not to be called liberal--"Neither are their gifts liberal, for
they are not honourable, nor on account of this, nor as they ought to
be" (iv. 1). Again about the [Greek: megaloprepê\s] or _magnificent_
man--"Now the magnificent man will expend such things on account of
the honourable; for this is a condition shared in by all the virtues:
and still he will do so pleasantly and lavishly" (iv. 2). On the
contrary, the [Greek: ba/nausos] or _vulgar_ man, who differs from
the magnificent man in the way of [Greek: u(perbolê\] or _excess_, is
said to spend--"Not for the sake of the honourable, but for the
purpose of making a display of his wealth" (iv. 2).
With respect to those epithets which imply praise or blame, there is
always a tacit comparison with some assumed standard. Thus with
regard to the [Greek: philo/timos] (lover of honour), Aristotle
observes--"It is evident that, as the term 'lover of such and such
things' is used in various senses, we do not always apply 'lover of
honour' to express the same thing; but when we praise, we praise that
ambition which is more than most men's, and blame that which is
greater than it ought to be" (iv. 4).
In the fifth Book, Aristotle proceeds to explain wherein consist
_Justice_ and _Injustice_.
These words are used in two senses--a larger sense and a narrower
sense.
In the larger sense, _just behaviour_ is equivalent to the observance
of law, generally: unjust behaviour is equivalent to the violation of
law generally. But the law either actually does command, or may be
understood to command, that we should perform towards others the acts
belonging to each separate head of virtue: it either actually
prohibits, or may be understood to prohibit, us from performing
towards others any of the acts belonging to each separate head of
vice. In this larger sense, therefore, _justice_ is synonymous
generally with perfect virtue--_injustice_, with perfect wickedness:
there is only this difference, that _just_ or _unjust_ are
expressions applied to behaviour in so far as it affects other
persons besides the agent: whereas _virtuous_ or _wicked_ are
expressions applied simply to the agent without connoting any such
ulterior reference to other persons. _Just_ or _unjust_, is
necessarily towards somebody else: and this reference is implied
distinctly in the term. Virtuous and vicious do not in the force of
the term connote any such relations, but are employed with reference