Critical and Historical Essays
style of church singing in vogue, and substituted for it a
system of chanting in which every tie between the words and
music was severed.
The music was certainly primitive enough, for it consisted
merely of a rising and falling of the voice for the space of
many notes on one single syllable, as, for instance,
[F: (f g f g a a) a (a a a g a g g f a)]
[W: Gloria]
The difference between this and the Ambrosian chant is evident
if we look at the following; and we must also bear in mind
that the Ambrosian chants were very simple in comparison with
the florid _tours de force_ of the Byzantine church:
[F: d (d f) (d e) f | (g f) (g a) a | (a g) a c' d']
[W: Al me pater | Ambrosi, | nostras, preces,]
[F: (a b) a | a g a f e d]
[W: audi | Christe, exaudinos]
Now this reform could not be carried out at once; it was
only through the medium of Charlemagne (742-814 A.D.),
a hundred years later, that the Gregorian chant was firmly
established. Authorized by a synod of bishops, called together
from all parts of Europe by Pope Adrian I, Charlemagne, in
774, caused all the chant and hymn books of the Ambrosian
system throughout Italy to be burned. So completely was
this accomplished that only one Ambrosian missal was found
(by St. Eugenius at Milan), and from this work alone can we
form any idea as to the character of the music used by the
followers of Ambrose, who were much retarded by the lack of
a musical notation, which was the next factor needed to bring
music to an equality with the other arts.
[07] Imitating the sound of the thing signified. Poe's
"Raven" has much of this character.
[08] [over-dot]c, perfect pause; c[mid-dot], short; c., shortest;
breathings: [reverse-apostrophe] hard; ' soft.
VIII
FORMATION OF THE SCALE--NOTATION
In comparing the Ambrosian chant with that of Gregory, it
may be said that we have touched upon the vital principle of
modern music. The novelty in the Gregorian chant consisted in
its absolute emancipation from the tyranny of actual words
and declamation; while the idea, the poetic principle, or
religious ecstasy still remained the ideal to be expressed in
the music. Before this, as already explained, music was either
a mathematical problem, a rhythm to mark the time in dancing,
or a vehicle serving for the display of clever _tours de force_,
the music of the tragedies being merely a kind of melodious
declamation. To quote Goethe, "having recognized the fact,
it still remains for us to see how it developed." Let us now
consider this point.
Three things were necessary before these Gregorian chants
could develop at all: (1) A simple, clean-cut musical scale
or systematized table of musical sounds. (2) Some definite
manner of symbolizing sounds, so that they could be accurately
expressed in writing. (3) A cultivation of the sense of
hearing, in order that mankind might learn to distinguish
between sounds that are discordant and those that sound well
together; in other words, harmony.
We will begin with the scale, and review what we know of the
Greek modes in order to show how they were amalgamated into
our present octave system of scales.
[Tetrachords /------|-----\ /-------|--------\ ]
[ F: b, c d e f g a G: b c' d' e' f' g' a']
[Mixolydian \--+-+-+-+-+-+----/ | | | | | | ]
[Lydian \-+-+-+-+-+------/ | | | | | ]
[Phrygian \-+-+-+-+---------/ | | | | ]
[Dorian \-+-+-+------------/ | | | ]
[Hypolydian \-+-+---------------/ | | ]
[Hypophrygian \-+------------------/ | ]
[Aeolian or Locrian or Hypodorian \---------------------/ ]
[Notes labelled from highest to lowest: Nete, Paranete, Trite,
Nete, Paranete, Trite, Paramese, Mese, Lichanos, Parhypate,
Hypate, Lichanos, Parhypate, Hypate, [F: a,] Proslambanomenos.]
Under Ambrose and Pope Gregory, these modes had taken a
different form. The chromatic and enharmonic styles had been
abandoned in theory, the portamento which the singers introduced
into their chants being the only principle retained. The new
system was as follows:
[F8: g, a, b, G8: c d e f g a b c' d' e' f' g' a']
[First nine notes labelled:
Hypoion., Hypodor., Hypophryg., Hypolyd./Ionian,
Hypo-mixolyd./Dorian, Hypoaeol./Phryg., Lyd., Mixolyd., Aeol.]
In order to complete the story of the evolution of scales and
clefs, we must add that the Flemish monk, Hucbald (900 A.D.),
divided this scale into regular tetrachords, beginning at
G, with the succession, tone, semitone, tone, forming four
disjunct tetrachords,
[F: (g, a, b-, c) (d e f g) (a b c' d') G: (e' f+' g' a')]
This division remained without influence on the development
of the scale.
The first change in the _tetrachord_ system of reckoning
tones and dividing the scale was made by Guido d'Arezzo (first
half of eleventh century), who divided it into hexachords or
groups of six notes each. Up to that time, each note of the
scale had had a letter of the alphabet for its symbol. It was
Guido who conceived the idea of using syllables for these
notes. The story of how it occurred to him is well known:
On one occasion, hearing his brethren in the monastery choir
of Arezzo, in Tuscany, sing a hymn to St. John the Baptist, he
noticed that the first syllable of each line came on regularly
ascending notes of the scale, the first syllable coming on C,
the first of the next line on D, the first of the third on E,
etc., up to A on the sixth line. As all these syllables happened
to differ one from the other, and, moreover, were very easy
to sing, he hit upon the idea of using them to distinguish
the notes on which they fell in the hymn.
[F: c d f (d e) d | d d c d e e ]
[W: _Ut_ queant laxis | _Re_sonare fibris ]
[F: (e f g) e (d e) c d | f g a (g f) d d]
[W: _Mi_ra gestorum | _Fa_muli tuorum ]
[F: (g a g) e f g d | a g a f (g a) a | (g f) d c e d ]
[W: _Sol_ve polluti | _La_bii reatum | Sancte Joannes]
Furthermore, as there were six of these syllables, he arranged
the musical scale in groups of six notes instead of four,
hexachords instead of tetrachords. Commencing with G, which
was the lowest note of the system in Hucbald's time, the first
hexachord was formed of G A B C D E; the second, following the
example of the Greeks, he made to overlap the first, namely,
C D E F G A; the third, likewise overlapping the second,
commenced on F. In order to make this hexachord identical
in structure with, the first and second, he flatted the B,
thus making the succession of notes, F G A B[flat] C D. The
next three hexachords were repetitions of the first three,
namely, G A B C D E, C D E F G A, F G A B[flat] C D; the last
was again a repetition of the first, G A B C D E.
THE GAMUT.
[F: g, a, b, c d e c d e f g a f g a b- c' d' ]
[W: [Gamma] A B C D E C D E F G a F G a b c d ]
[W: (Ut re mi fa sol la) (Ut re mi fa sol la) (Ut re mi fa sol la)]
[Hexachords: (Hard Low) (Natural Low) (Soft Low)]
[G: g a b= c' d' e' c' d' e' f' g' a' ]
[W: G a b c d e c d e f g aa ]
[W: (Ut re mi fa sol la) (Ut re mi fa sol la)]
[Hexachords: (Hard High) (Natural High)]
[G: f' g' a' b-' c'' d'' g' a' b=' c'' d'' e'']
[W: f g aa bb cc dd g aa bb cc dd ee ]
[W: (Ut re mi fa sol la) (Ut re mi fa sol la)]
[Hexachords: (Soft High) (Hard Super Acute)]
To the lowest note of this scale, which was foreign to the
Greek system, he gave a special name, _gamma_, after the
Greek letter G. From this we get our word for the scale,
the gamut. The other notes remained the same as before, only
that for the lowest octave capital letters were used; in the
next octave, the notes were designated by small letters, and
in the last octave by double letters, aa, bb, etc., as in the
following example.
[F: g, g G: a g' | a' g'' ]
[W: Capitals. : Small letters | Double or very small letters]
PRESENT SCALE.
[F: c,, | c, | c G: c' | c'' | c''' | c'''']
[W: C_ | C | c : c' | c'' | c''' | c'''']
[W: Contra | Great | Small : 1st | 2nd | 3rd | 4th ]
Following out his system, he applied the newly acquired
syllables to each of the hexachords--for instance, the lowest
hexachord, G A B C D E, which was called hard, became _ut re
mi fa sol la_; the second, which was called natural, C D E F
G A, also became _ut re mi fa sol la_; and the third, which
was called soft, F G A B[flat] C D, became likewise _ut re mi
fa sol la_. The next three hexachords were treated in the same
manner; the last or seventh hexachord was merely a repetition
of the first and the fourth.
Now in the hymns, and also in the sequences, as they were called
(which were simply a series of notes forming a little melody
sung to two or three words), the voice was rarely called upon
to progress more than the interval of a sixth, and so this
solmization, as the new system was called, was very valuable;
for one had only to give the pitch, and _ut_ always meant the
keynote, _re_ the second, _mi_ the third, etc., etc. In time
_ut_ was found to be a difficult syllable to sing, and _do_
was substituted. This change, however, was made after the scale
was divided into a system of octaves instead of hexachords. The
improvement in singing soon made the limits of the hexachords
too small to be practical; therefore another syllable was added
to the hexachordal system, _si_, and with this seventh note
we have our modern scale. From this we see that the scale in
present use is composed of octaves, just as the older scales
were composed of hexachords, and before that tetrachords. Just
as in mediaeval times each hexachord commenced with _ut_,
so now every octave of our tonal system commences with _do_.
Before leaving the hexachordal system, it may be as well to
explain the mode of procedure when the voice had to go beyond
the interval of the sixth. We know that the first of every set
of six notes was called _ut_, the second, _re_, the third,
_mi_, etc. When the voice had to go beyond _la_, the sixth
note, to B[natural], that sixth note was always called _re_,
and was considered the second note of a new hexachord. If,
on the other hand, the voice had to go beyond _a_, to B[flat],
the fifth note was called _re_, since the syllables _mi fa_
must always come on the half-tone.
In a study of our system of writing music, it may be as well to
begin with the derivation of our sharps and flats. Observing
the third hexachord on our list we see that in order to make
it identical in structure with the first and second, the B had
to be lowered a semitone. Now the third hexachord was called
soft. The B[flat] in it was accordingly called a soft B or
B _molle_, which is still the name in France for a flat, and
_moll_ in German still means minor, or "soft" or "lowered." For
the fourth hexachord, which was called hard, this B was again
raised a semitone. But the flatted B was already indicated
by the letter _b_ or round _b_, as it was called; hence this
B natural was given a _square_ shape and called B _carre_,
[illustration]. The present French word for natural (when it
is specially marked) is _becarre_; the German word for major
also comes indirectly from this, for _dur_ means "hard."
An explanation of the modern German names for notes will be
easily understood in this connection. In the German nomenclature
the letters of the alphabet stand for the notes of the scale
as in the English, with the exception of B. This B, or "round"