Main currents in American thought An interpretation of American literature from the beginnings to 1920
of the influence of the frontier in economic terms--_Ubi panis
ibi patria_; a new type; influence of the middle settlements,
the frontier. _More Letters_: Crèvecœur the Loyalist--dislike of
American Whiggery 140
II. The Anachronism of Jonathan Edwards
I. Backgrounds: Decay of Calvinism; beginnings of rationalism. A
free environment and the dogmas of total depravity and election.
The major question of determinism 148
II. Edwards a Puritan mystic. Sought to establish theology
in philosophy. Idealistic philosophy. Desire to magnify
God--interpreted in terms of will. Defended threatened dogmas. _On
the Freedom of the Will_--the triumph of the theologian. _Narrative
of the Surprizing Works of God_ and the psychology of conversion.
The Great Awakening. Father of later Congregationalism. The tragedy
of his position 152
III. Benjamin Franklin--Our First Ambassador--A Democrat in an
aristocratic world. A free soul; product of environment. Compared
with Defoe. His rise. Enters politics. Agent in England. Corruption
of English politics. A sociologist; our first economist. Economic
theories: _A Modest Inquiry into the Nature and Necessity of a
Paper Currency._ Labor the measure of value. Accepted Physiocratic
views: _laissez faire_, agrarianism. Distrust of industrialism.
_Principles of Trade._ Political views: imperial federation,
Whiggery. In the Constitutional Convention--a unicameral system. A
child of the eighteenth century 164
Part II
The Awakening of the American Mind--1763-1783
I. Imperial Sovereignty and Home Rule
I. Background Facts: Causes of the Revolution obscure. Home rule
and imperial centralization. Native liberalism. Three areas and
three diverse interests. The imperial problem. Grievances of
merchants, planters, yeomanry 179
II. Argument and Propaganda: American case based on the British
Constitution; on natural rights. Theories of representation,
English and colonial. Powers of Parliament. Natural rights and
Locke--reasons for his appeal 186
III. Certain Social Consequences: Emergence of republicanism.
Attitude of upper class. Expulsion of Loyalists. Influence on
American culture. Rise of middle class; political centralization 190
II. The Mind of the American Tory
I. Thomas Hutchinson--Royal Governor: The House of Hutchinson.
Character and intellectual attainments. Insincerity of the Tory
philosophy. Situation on his accession to the governorship.
Prerogative and democracy. Proposals for remodeling Massachusetts
government. The Town Meeting. Affair of the letters. The problem of
sovereignty. Government by ministerial instructions. Comment on his
enemies. His failure 194
II. Daniel Leonard--Tory Lawyer: Character. _Massachusettensis._ A
follower of Hobbes--the leviathan state. The sin of rebellion and
the law of treason. Groundlessness of American sedition--the virus
of republicanism. On the right of revolution 207
III. Jonathan Boucher--Tory Priest: Character. _A View of the
Causes and Consequences of the American Revolution._ Influence
of Filmer’s _Patriarcha_. Doctrine of obedience. Evil effects of
republicanism. Government a divine institution--the patriarchal
nature of kingship. An extreme Tory 214
III. John Dickinson--The Mind of the American Whig--A
moderate--spokesman of the colonial Whigs. Essence of Whiggery--the
rule of property. His social position; conception of political
stewardship. A constitutional lawyer. Accepted parliamentary
sovereignty, right to regulate trade. Taxation and Whiggery--a tax
and an imposition. Not a republican. His _Two Letters on the Tea
Tax_. In the Constitutional Convention. _Letters of Fabius._ His
views old-fashioned 219
IV. Samuel Adams--The Mind of the American Democrat--An agitator
and practical politician. Member of the opposition. Advocate
of home rule. Understood the ways of Tory government. Master
of political theory. Three lines of argument: natural rights,
constitutional rights, the charter compact. Influence of Locke, of
Coke. Reliance on public opinion. Use of publicity, organization,
town meetings. Newspaper articles. Motive of attacks on royal
officials. Faith in the people. A democrat. The cost in reputation 233
V. Literary Echoes
I. The Whig Satirists
1. John Trumbull: A lover of _belles lettres_ drawn into the
strife. _M’Fingal._ The note of humor. A potential intellectual;
a moderate liberal. An echo of Connecticut opinion 248
2. Francis Hopkinson, Esq.: The state of Philadelphia culture.
A dilettante. A potential Tory turned Whig. _The New Roof;
Objections to the Proposed Plan of a Federal Government._
A Federalist 252
II. The Tory Satirists
1. Jonathan Odell: A bitter nature. His satires--an embodiment
of class prejudice. _The American Times._ Estimate of Whig
leaders 255
2. Samuel Peters: His curious ambition. His _History
of Connecticut_. Explanation of the cause of the
Revolution--ministerial neglect. The cure--establishment of a
colonial aristocracy 259
Book III: Liberalism and the Constitution
Part I
The Agrarian Defeat--1783-1787
I. Agrarianism and Capitalism
I. Background of Ideas--English and French contributions. The
struggle between political realists and humanitarian liberals.
Influence of English middle class. Puritan ethics of work and
capitalism. Attitude towards current liberalisms--the state.
Influence of Harrington, Locke, Adam Smith. The new individualism.
Rousseau and French humanitarianism--decentralization and the
paternalistic state. Reasons why English influence prevailed 267
II. The Political Situation: Party alignments. Weakness of
agrarians. The composite group of Federalists. Odium attaching
to democracy--confused with Populism. Shays’s Rebellion.
Reaction from natural rights to economic realism. The return to
seventeenth-century republicanism 273
II. The Great Debate--Inadequate theory of republicanism. Earlier
English liberalism undemocratic. Democratic theory undeveloped.
First debate: republicanism and the majority rule--Madison’s view;
the Whig doctrine of property rule. Second debate: opposition
to checks on majority will. _The Federalist_--its repute, the
augmented state, theory of faction, economic basis of government.
_Letters_ of R. H. Lee--analysis of economic conditions, the
Constitution undemocratic. Emergence of parties 279
III. Political Thinkers--The English Group
I. Alexander Hamilton--The Leviathan State: Representative of
conservative interests. A master of finance, administrator rather
than thinker. Inadequate intellectual equipment. A political
realist: men are swayed by self-interest; the rule of the strong.
Undemocratic. The doctrine of _vox justiciae_. His plan of
government--the fallacy of his argument. As a statesman: necessity
of allying the wealthy with government: position on funding,
taxation, the tariff, the industrial revolution. Statesman of the
rising capitalism 292
II. John Adams--Realist: Compared with Dr. Johnson--apostle of
common sense. Shift from earlier position. Intellectual qualities.
His early constitutionalism--a federated British empire. _A
Defense of the Constitution of Government_, and _Discourses on
Davila_. Opposition aroused by latter. His political philosophy:
theory of human nature, doctrine of rivalry, the class struggle,
natural aristocracy. Foolishness of French doctrines of equality
and fraternity. Faction the weakness of democracy--the end anarchy
or absolutism. The fact of property rule. Hence need for system
of checks and balances. Sources of his philosophy--Harrington.
Hostility to Hamilton. A notable political thinker 307
Part II
Political Democracy Gets under Way--1787-1800
I. The Impact of the French Revolution--Stirred party passions
afresh. Popularized democracy in America and provided a body of
philosophy: doctrines of the majority will, expediency, local
self-government. Later party divisions. Democratic clubs. The
_odium theologicum_. Paine’s _Rights of Man_ and J. Q. Adams’s
_Publicola_. The shift of positions 321
II. Political Thinkers--The French Group
I. Tom Paine--Republican Pamphleteer: An internationalist. Odium
attaching to his name. A social inefficient. _Common Sense_--appeal
to expediency; attack on monarchy and the British Constitution.
Political philosophy: doctrine of continuous compact, of the _res
publica_. _The Rights of Man_--a reply to Burke’s theory of civil
contract and the expediency of aristocratic rule. The business
of the revolution. _Agrarian Justice_: civilization and poverty;
relation to Babeuf; theory of unearned increment; a tax proposal.
_Decline and Fall of the English System of Finance_--an attack on
funding. A pacifist. Sources of his philosophy. His position in
contemporary American opinion 327
II. Thomas Jefferson--Agrarian Democrat: Position. His
inconsistencies due to a slowly clarifying philosophy. An
intellectual, holding to American experience. Chief doctrines:
the social compact, the _res publica_, the diminished state--a
philosophy of decentralization. Belief in the excellence of an
agrarian economy--a Physiocrat; fear of cities and industrialism.
Suspicious of appeal to past experience: the evils of the past
due to leviathan state; consolidation would repeat those evils
in America. Excellence of home rule; the majority will. Fear of
judicial encroachment, the Common Law. Class rule serves class
interests. Faith in the common people. The industrial revolution
and a new centralization 342
III. The War of Belles Lettres
I. The Federalist Group 357
1. The Hartford Wits: Arch conservatives. Sources of Connecticut
Federalism--Calvinism and business. The Connecticut fear of
democracy. Members of the group. Theodore Dwight. Timothy
Dwight--his contemporary reputation, likeness to Increase Mather,
a clerical Federalist. His literary work 357
2. _The Anarchiad_: Political writings of the Wits. Character of
Lemuel Hopkins. The theme of the work--an attack on populism and
democracy 363
II. The French Group 367
1. Philip Freneau--Poet of Two Revolutions: A revolutionary
volunteer--effect on his reputation. A radical advocate of all
liberal movements. Effect on his poetic career. Spirit of his