Plutarch: Lives of the noble Grecians and Romans
Now, also, he more and more accommodated himself in his way of
living to that of the natives, and tried to bring them, also, as
near as he could to the Macedonian customs, wisely considering
that whilst he was engaged in an expedition which would carry him
far from thence, it would be wiser to depend upon the goodwill
which might arise from intermixture and association as a means of
maintaining tranquillity, than upon force and compulsion. In
order to this, he chose out thirty thousand boys, whom he put
under masters to teach them the Greek tongue, and to train them up
to arms in the Macedonian discipline. As for his marriage with
Roxana, whose youthfulness and beauty had charmed him at a
drinking entertainment, where he first happened to see her, taking
part in a dance, it was, indeed, a love affair, yet it seemed at
the same time to be conducive to the object he had in hand. For
it gratified the conquered people to see him choose a wife from
among themselves, and it made them feel the most lively affection
for him, to find that in the only passion which he, the most
temperate of men, was overcome by, he yet forbore till he could
obtain her in a lawful and honorable way.
Noticing, also, that among his chief friends and favorites,
Hephaestion most approved all that he did, and complied with and
imitated him in his change of habits, while Craterus continued
strict in the observation of the customs and fashions of his own
country, he made it his practice to employ the first in all
transactions with the Persians, and the latter when he had to do
with the Greeks or Macedonians. And in general he showed more
affection for Hephaestion, and more respect for Craterus;
Hephaestion, as he used to say, being Alexander's, and Craterus
the king's friend. And so these two friends always bore in secret
a grudge to each other, and at times quarreled openly, so much so,
that once in India they drew upon one another, and were proceeding
in good earnest, with their friends on each side to second them,
when Alexander rode up and publicly reproved Hephaestion, calling
him fool and madman, not to be sensible that without his favor he
was nothing. He rebuked Craterus, also, in private, severely, and
then causing them both to come into his presence, he reconciled
them, at the same time swearing by Ammon and the rest of the gods,
that he loved them two above all other men, but if ever he
perceived them fall out again he would be sure to put both of them
to death, or at least the aggressor. After which they neither
ever did or said anything, so much as in jest, to offend one
another.
There was scarcely anyone who had greater repute among the
Macedonians than Philotas, the son of Parmenio. For besides that
he was valiant and able to endure any fatigue of war, he was also
next to Alexander himself the most munificent, and the greatest
lover of his friends, one of whom asking him for some money, he
commanded his steward to give it him; and when he told him he had
not wherewith, "Have you not any plate then," said he, "or any
clothes of mine to sell?" But he carried his arrogance and his
pride of wealth and his habits of display and luxury to a degree
of assumption unbecoming a private man, and affecting all the
loftiness without succeeding in showing any of the grace or
gentleness of true greatness, by this mistaken and spurious
majesty he gained so much envy and ill-will, that Parmenio would
sometimes tell him, "My son, to be not quite so great would be
better." For he had long before been complained of, and accused
to Alexander. Particularly when Darius was defeated in Cilicia,
and an immense booty was taken at Damascus, among the rest of the
prisoners who were brought into the camp, there was one Antigone
of Pydna, a very handsome woman, who fell to Philotas's share.
The young man one day in his cups, in the vaunting, outspoken,
soldier's manner, declared to his mistress, that all the great
actions were performed by him and his father, the glory and
benefit of which, he said, together with the title of king, the
boy Alexander reaped and enjoyed by their means. She could not
hold, but discovered what he had said to one of her acquaintance,
and he, as is usual in such cases, to another, till at last the
story came to the ears of Craterus, who brought the woman secretly
to the king. When Alexander had heard what she had to say, he
commanded her to continue her intrigue with Philotas, and give him
an account from time to time of all that should fall from him to
this purpose. He thus unwittingly caught in a snare, to gratify
some times a fit of anger, sometimes a mere love of vainglory, let
himself utter numerous foolish, indiscreet speeches against the
king in Antigone's hearing, of which though Alexander was informed
and convinced by strong evidence, yet he would take no notice of
it at present, whether it was that he confided in Parmenio's
affection and loyalty, or that he apprehended their authority and
interest in the army. But about this time one Limnus, a
Macedonian of Chalastra, conspired against Alexander's life, and
communicated his design to a youth whom he was fond of, named
Nicomachus, inviting him to be of the party. But he not relishing
the thing, revealed it to his brother Balinus, who immediately
addressed himself to Philotas, requiring him to introduce them
both to Alexander, to whom they had something of great moment to
impart which very nearly concerned him. But he, for what reason
is uncertain, went not with them, professing that the king was
engaged with affairs of more importance. And when they had urged
him a second time, and were still slighted by him, they applied
themselves to another, by whose means being admitted into
Alexander's presence, they first told about Limnus's conspiracy,
and by the way let Philotas's negligence appear, who had twice
disregarded their application to him. Alexander was greatly
incensed, and on finding that Limnus had defended himself, and had
been killed by the soldier who was sent to seize him, he was still
more discomposed, thinking he had thus lost the means of detecting
the plot. As soon as his displeasure against Philotas began to
appear, presently all his old enemies showed themselves, and said
openly, the king was too easily imposed on, to imagine that one so
inconsiderable as Limnus, a Chalastrian, should of his own head
undertake such an enterprise; that in all likelihood he was but
subservient to the design, an instrument that was moved by some
greater spring; that those ought to be more strictly examined
about the matter whose interest it was so much to conceal it.
When they had once gained the king's ear for insinuations of this
sort, they went on to show a thousand grounds of suspicion against
Philotas, till at last they prevailed to have him seized and put
to the torture, which was done in the presence of the principal
officers, Alexander himself being placed behind some tapestry to
understand what passed. Where, when he heard in what a miserable
tone, and with what abject submissions Philotas applied himself to
Hephaestion, he broke out, it is said, in this manner: "Are you
so mean-spirited and effeminate, Philotas, and yet can engage in
so desperate a design?" After his death, he presently sent into
Media, and put also Parmenio, his father, to death, who had done
brave service under Philip, and was the only man, of his older
friends and counselors, who had encouraged Alexander to invade
Asia. Of three sons whom he had had in the army, he had already
lost two, and now was himself put to death with the third. These
actions rendered Alexander an object of terror to many of his
friends, and chiefly to Antipater, who, to strengthen himself,
sent messengers privately to treat for an alliance with the
Aetolians, who stood in fear of Alexander, because they had
destroyed the town of the Oeniadae; on being informed of which,
Alexander had said the children of the Oeniadae need not revenge
their fathers' quarrel, for he would himself take care to punish
the Aetolians.
Not long after this happened the deplorable end of Clitus, which
to those who barely hear the matter-of-fact, may seem more inhuman
than that of Philotas; but if we consider the story with its
circumstance of time, and weigh the cause, we shall find it to
have occurred rather through a sort of mischance of the king's,
whose anger and over-drinking offered an occasion to the evil
genius of Clitus. The king had a present of Grecian fruit brought
him from the sea-coast, which was so fresh and beautiful, that he
was surprised at it, and called Clitus to him to see it, and to
give him a share of it. Clitus was then sacrificing, but he
immediately left off and came, followed by three sheep, on whom
the drink-offering had been already poured preparatory to
sacrificing them. Alexander, being informed of this, told his
diviners, Aristander and Cleomantis the Lacedaemonian, and asked
them what it meant; on whose assuring him, it was an ill omen, he
commanded them in all haste to offer sacrifices for Clitus's
safety, forasmuch as three days before he himself had seen a
strange vision in his sleep, of Clitus all in mourning, sitting by
Parmenio's sons who were dead. Clitus, however, stayed not to
finish his devotions, but came straight to supper with the king,
who had sacrificed to Castor and Pollux. And when they had drunk
pretty hard, some of the company fell a singing the verses of one
Pranichus, or as others say of Pierion, which were made upon those
captains who had been lately worsted by the barbarians, on purpose
to disgrace and turn them to ridicule. This gave offense to the
older men who were there, and they upbraided both the author and
the singer of the verses, though Alexander and the younger men
about him were much amused to hear them, and encouraged them to go
on, till at last Clitus, who had drunk too much, and was besides
of a froward and willful temper, was so nettled that he could hold
no longer, saying, it was not well done to expose the Macedonians
so before the barbarians and their enemies, since though it was
their unhappiness to be overcome, yet they were much better men
than those who laughed at them. And when Alexander remarked, that
Clitus was pleading his own cause, giving cowardice the name of
misfortune, Clitus started up; "This cowardice, as you are pleased
to term it," said he to him, "saved the life of a son of the gods,
when in flight from Spithridates's sword; and it is by the expense
of Macedonian blood, and by these wounds, that you are now raised
to such a height, as to be able to disown your father Philip, and
call yourself the Son of Ammon." "Thou base fellow," said
Alexander, who was now thoroughly exasperated, "dost thou think to
utter these things everywhere of me, and stir up the Macedonians
to sedition, and not be punished for it?" "We are sufficiently
punished already," answered Clitus, "if this be the recompense of
our toils, and we must esteem theirs a happy lot, who have not
lived to see their countrymen scourged with Median rods, and
forced to sue to the Persians to have access to their king."
While he talked thus at random, and those near Alexander got up
from their seats and began to revile him in turn, the elder men
did what they could to compose the disorder. Alexander, in the
meantime turning about to Xenodochus, the Cardian, and Artemius,
the Colophonian, asked them if they were not of opinion that the
Greeks, in comparison with the Macedonians, behaved themselves
like so many demi-gods among wild beasts. But Clitus for all this
would not give over, desiring Alexander to speak out if he had
anything more to say, or else why did he invite men who were
freeborn and accustomed to speak their minds openly without