South: The Story of Shackleton's Last Expedition, 1914-1917
therefore, conditions are peculiarly difficult for getting really
accurate observations, and it is necessary to reduce the probability of
error in a single observation as much as possible. When possible,
observations of the altitude of a star or of the sun should be taken
with the theodolite, since the altitude is referred to the spirit-level
of the instrument, and is independent of any apparent horizon. During
the drift of the _Endurance_ both means of observation were generally
employed. A comparison of the results showed an agreement between
sextant and theodolite, within the errors of the instrument if the
temperature was above about 20° Fahr. At lower temperatures there were
frequently discrepancies which could generally be attributed to the
mirage effects described above.
As the _Endurance_ was carried by the ice-drift well to the west of the
Weddell Sea, towards the position of the supposed Morrell Land, the
accurate determination of longitude became a matter of moment in view
of the controversy as to the existence of this land. During a long
voyage latitude can always be determined with about the same accuracy,
the accuracy merely depending on the closeness with which altitudes can
be measured. In the case of longitude matters are rather different. The
usual method employed consists in the determination of the local time
by astronomical observations, and the comparison of this time with
Greenwich time, as shown by the ship’s chronometer, an accurate
knowledge of the errors and rate of the chronometer being required.
During the voyage of the _Endurance_ about fifteen months elapsed
during which no check on the chronometers could be obtained by the
observation of known land, and had no other check been applied there
would have been the probability of large errors in the longitudes. For
the purpose of checking the chronometers a number of observations of
occultations were observed during the winter of 1915. An occultation is
really the eclipse of a star by the moon. A number of such eclipses
occur monthly, and are tabulated in the “Nautical Almanac.” From the
data given there it is possible to compute the Greenwich time at which
the phenomenon ought to occur for an observer situated at any place on
the earth, provided his position is known within a few miles, which
will always be the case. The time of disappearance of the star by the
chronometer to be corrected is noted. The actual Greenwich time of the
occurrence is calculated, and the error of the chronometer is thus
determined. With ordinary care the chronometer error can be determined
in this way to within a few seconds, which is accurate enough for
purposes of navigation. The principal difficulties of this method lie
in the fact that comparatively few occultations occur, and those which
do occur are usually of stars of the fifth magnitude or lower. In the
Antarctic, conditions for observing occultation are rather favourable
during the winter, since, fifth-magnitude stars can be seen with a
small telescope at any time during the twenty-four hours if the sky is
clear, and the moon is also often above the horizon for a large
fraction of the time. In the summer, however, the method is quite
impossible, since, for some months, stars are not to be seen.
No chronometer check could be applied until June 1915. On June 24 a
series of four occultations were observed; and the results of the
observations showed an error in longitude of a whole degree. In July,
August, and September further occultations were observed, and a fairly
reliable rate was worked out for the chronometers and watches. After
the crushing of the ship on October 27, 1915, no further occultations
were observed, but the calculated rates for the watches were employed,
and the longitude deduced, using these rates on March 23, 1916, was
only about 10´ of arc in error, judging by the observations of
Joinville Land made on that day. It is thus fairly certain that no
large error can have been made in the determination of the position of
the _Endurance_ at any time during the drift, and her course can be
taken as known with greater certainty than is usually the case in a
voyage of such length.
SOUTH ATLANTIC WHALES AND WHALING
By ROBERT S. CLARK, M.A., B.Sc., Lieut. R.N.V.R.
Modern whaling methods were introduced into sub-Antarctic seas in 1904,
and operations commenced in the following year at South Georgia. So
successful was the initial venture that several companies were floated,
and the fishing area was extended to the South Shetlands, the South
Orkneys, and as far as 67° S along the western coast of Graham Land.
This area lies within the Dependencies of the Falkland Islands, and is
under the control of the British Government, and its geographical
position offers exceptional opportunities for the successful
prosecution of the industry by providing a sufficient number of safe
anchorages and widely separated islands, where shore stations have been
established. The Dependencies of the Falkland Islands lie roughly
within latitude 50° and 65° S. and longitude 25° and 70° W., and
include the Falkland Islands, South Georgia, South Sandwich, South
Orkney, and South Shetland Islands, and part of Graham Land.
The industry is prosperous, and the products always find a ready
market. In this sub-Antarctic area alone, the resulting products more
than doubled the world’s supply. The total value of the Falkland Island
Dependencies in 1913 amounted to £1,252,432, in 1914 to £1,300,978, in
1915 to £1,333,401, and in 1916 to £1,774,570. This has resulted
chiefly from the marketing of whale oil and the by-product, guano, and
represents for each total a season’s capture of several thousand
whales. In 1916, the number of whales captured in this area was 11,860,
which included 6000 for South Georgia alone. Whale oil, which is now
the product of most economic value in the whaling industry, is produced
in four grades (some companies adding a fifth). These are Nos. 0, I,
II, III, IV, which in 1913 sold at £24, £22, £20, and £18 respectively
per ton, net weight, barrels included (there are six barrels to a ton).
The 1919 prices have increased to
£72 10s. per ton (barrels included) less 2½ per cent.
£68 per ton (barrels included) less 2½ per cent.
£65 ” ” ” ” ” ” ”
£63 ” ” ” ” ” ” ”
Whale oil can be readily transformed into glycerine: it is used in the
manufacture of soap, and quite recently, both in this country and in
Norway, it has been refined by means of a simple hardening process into
a highly palatable and nutritious margarine. Wartime conditions
emphasized the importance of the whale oil, and fortunately the supply
was fairly constant for the production of the enormous quantities of
glycerine required by the country in the manufacture of explosives. In
relation to the food supply, it was no less important in saving the
country from a “fat” famine, when the country was confronted with the
shortage of vegetable and other animal oils. The production of guano,
bone-meal, and flesh-meal may pay off the running expenses of a
whaling-station, but their value lies, perhaps, more in their
individual properties. Flesh-meal makes up into cattle-cake, which
forms an excellent fattening food for cattle, while bone-meal and guano
are very effective fertilizers. Guano is the meat—generally the residue
of distillation—which goes through a process of drying and
disintegration, and is mixed with the crushed bone in the proportion of
two parts flesh to one part bone. This is done chiefly at the shore
stations, and, to a less extent on floating factories, though so far on
the latter it has not proved very profitable. Whale flesh, though
slightly greasy perhaps and of strong flavour, is quite palatable, and
at South Georgia, it made a welcome addition to our bill of fare—the
flesh of the hump back being used. A large supply of whale flesh was
“shipped” as food for the dogs on the journey South, and this was eaten
ravenously. It is interesting to note also the successful rearing of
pigs at South Georgia—chiefly, if not entirely, on the whale products.
The whalebone or baleen plates, which at one time formed the most
valuable article of the Arctic fishery, may here be regarded as of
secondary importance. The baleen plates of the southern right whale
reach only a length of about 7 ft., and have been valued at £750 per
ton, but the number of these whales captured is very small indeed. In
the case of the other whalebone whales, the baleen plates are much
smaller and of inferior quality—the baleen of the sei whale probably
excepted, and this only makes about £85 per ton, Sperm whales have been
taken at South Georgia and the South Shetlands, but never in any
quantity, being more numerous in warmer areas. The products and their
value are too well known to be repeated.
The _Endurance_ reached South Georgia on November 5, 1914, and anchored
in King Edward Cove, Cumberland Bay, off Grytviken, the shore station
of the Argentina Pesca Company. During the month’s stay at the island a
considerable amount of time was devoted to a study of the whales and
the whaling industry, in the intervals of the general routine of
expedition work, and simultaneously with other studies on the general
life of this interesting sub-Antarctic island. Visits were made to six
of the seven existing stations, observations were made on the whales
landed, and useful insight was gathered as to the general working of
the industry.
From South Georgia the track of the _Endurance_ lay in a direct line to
the South Sandwich Group, between Saunders and Candlemas Islands. Then
south-easterly and southerly courses were steered to the Coats’ Land
barrier, along which we steamed for a few hundred miles until forced
westward, when we were unfortunately held up in about lat. 76° 34´ S.
and long. 37° 30´ W. on January 19, 1915, by enormous masses of heavy
pack-ice. The ship drifted to lat. 76° 59´ S., long. 37° 47´ W. on
March 19, 1915, and then west and north until crushed in lat. 69° 5´ S.
and long. 51° 30´ W. on October 26, 1915. We continued drifting
gradually north, afloat on ice-floes, past Graham Land and Joinville
Island, and finally took to the boats on April 9, 1916, and reached
Elephant Island on April 15. The Falkland Island Dependencies were thus
practically circumnavigated, and it may be interesting to compare the
records of whales seen in the region outside and to the south of this
area with the records and the percentage of each species captured in
the intensive fishing area.
The most productive part of the South Atlantic lies south of latitude
50° S., where active operations extend to and even beyond the Antarctic
circle. It appears to be the general rule in Antarctic waters that
whales are more numerous the closer the association with ice
conditions, and there seems to be reasonable grounds for supposing that
this may explain the comparatively few whales sighted by Expeditions
which have explored the more northerly and more open seas, while the
whalers themselves have even asserted that their poor seasons have
nearly always coincided with the absence of ice, or with poor ice
conditions. At all events, those Expeditions which have penetrated far
south and well into the pack-ice have, without exception, reported the
presence of whales in large numbers, even in the farthest south
latitudes, so that our knowledge of the occurrence of whales in the
Antarctic has been largely derived from these Expeditions, whose main
object was either the discovery of new land or the Pole itself. The
largest number of Antarctic Expeditions has concentrated on the two
areas of the South Atlantic and the Ross Sea, and the records of the