The Germany and the Agricola of Tacitus
stamped with a distinct character. Hence a family likeness pervades the
whole, though their numbers are so great: eyes stern and blue; ruddy
hair; large bodies, [31] powerful in sudden exertions, but impatient of
toil and labor, least of all capable of sustaining thirst and heat. Cold
and hunger they are accustomed by their climate and soil to endure.
5. The land, though varied to a considerable extent in its aspect, is
yet universally shagged with forests, or deformed by marshes: moister on
the side of Gaul, more bleak on the side of Norieum and Pannonia. [32]
It is productive of grain, but unkindly to fruit-trees. [33] It abounds
in flocks and herds, but in general of a small breed. Even the beeve
kind are destitute of their usual stateliness and dignity of head: [34]
they are, however, numerous, and form the most esteemed, and, indeed,
the only species of wealth. Silver and gold the gods, I know not whether
in their favor or anger, have denied to this country. [35] Not that I
would assert that no veins of these metals are generated in Germany; for
who has made the search? The possession of them is not coveted by these
people as it is by us. Vessels of silver are indeed to be seen among
them, which have been presented to their ambassadors and chiefs; but
they are held in no higher estimation than earthenware. The borderers,
however, set a value on gold and silver for the purpose of commerce,
and have learned to distinguish several kinds of our coin, some of which
they prefer to others: the remoter inhabitants continue the more simple
and ancient usage of bartering commodities. The money preferred by the
Germans is the old and well-known species, such as the _Serrati_ and
_Bigati_. [36] They are also better pleased with silver than gold; [37]
not on account of any fondness for that metal, but because the smaller
money is more convenient in their common and petty merchandise.
6. Even iron is not plentiful [38] among them; as may be inferred from
the nature of their weapons. Swords or broad lances are seldom used; but
they generally carry a spear, (called in their language _framea_, [39])
which has an iron blade, short and narrow, but so sharp and manageable,
that, as occasion requires, they employ it either in close or distant
fighting. [40] This spear and a shield are all the armor of the cavalry.
The foot have, besides, missile weapons, several to each man, which they
hurl to an immense distance. [41] They are either naked, [42] or lightly
covered with a small mantle; and have no pride in equipage: their
shields only are ornamented with the choicest colors. [43] Few are
provided with a coat of mail; [44] and scarcely here and there one with
a casque or helmet. [45] Their horses are neither remarkable for beauty
nor swiftness, nor are they taught the various evolutions practised with
us. The cavalry either bear down straight forwards, or wheel once to
the right, in so compact a body that none is left behind the rest. Their
principal strength, on the whole, consists in their infantry: hence
in an engagement these are intermixed with the cavalry; [46] so Well
accordant with the nature of equestrian combats is the agility of those
foot soldiers, whom they select from the whole body of their youth,
and place in the front of the line. Their number, too, is determined; a
hundred from each canton: [47] and they are distinguished at home by a
name expressive of this circumstance; so that what at first was only an
appellation of number, becomes thenceforth a title of honor. Their line
of battle is disposed in wedges. [48] To give ground, provided
they rally again, is considered rather as a prudent strategem, than
cowardice. They carry off their slain even while the battle remains
undecided. The greatest disgrace that can befall them is to have
abandoned their shields. [49] A person branded with this ignominy is not
permitted to join in their religious rites, or enter their assemblies;
so that many, after escaping from battle, have put an end to their
infamy by the halter.
7. In the election of kings they have regard to birth; in that of
generals, [50] to valor. Their kings have not an absolute or unlimited
power; [51] and their generals command less through the force of
authority, than of example. If they are daring, adventurous, and
conspicuous in action, they procure obedience from the admiration they
inspire. None, however, but the priests [52] are permitted to judge
offenders, to inflict bonds or stripes; so that chastisement appears not
as an act of military discipline, but as the instigation of the god whom
they suppose present with warriors. They also carry with them to battle
certain images and standards taken from the sacred groves. [53] It is
a principal incentive to their courage, that their squadrons and
battalions are not formed by men fortuitously collected, but by the
assemblage of families and clans. Their pledges also are near at hand;
they have within hearing the yells of their women, and the cries of
their children. These, too, are the most revered witnesses of each man's
conduct, these his most liberal applauders. To their mothers and their
wives they bring their wounds for relief, nor do these dread to count
or to search out the gashes. The women also administer food and
encouragement to those who are fighting.
8. Tradition relates, that armies beginning to give way have been
rallied by the females, through the earnestness of their supplications,
the interposition of their bodies, [54] and the pictures they have drawn
of impending slavery, [55] a calamity which these people bear with more
impatience for their women than themselves; so that those states who
have been obliged to give among their hostages the daughters of noble
families, are the most effectually bound to fidelity. [56] They even
suppose somewhat of sanctity and prescience to be inherent in the female
sex; and therefore neither despise their counsels, [57] nor disregard
their responses. [58] We have beheld, in the reign of Vespasian, Veleda,
[59] long reverenced by many as a deity. Aurima, moreover, and several
others, [60] were formerly held in equal veneration, but not with a
servile flattery, nor as though they made them goddesses. [61]
9. Of the gods, Mercury [62] is the principal object of their adoration;
whom, on certain days, [63] they think it lawful to propitiate even with
human victims. To Hercules and Mars [64] they offer the animals usually
allotted for sacrifice. [65] Some of the Suevi also perform sacred rites
to Isis. What was the cause and origin of this foreign worship, I have
not been able to discover; further than that her being represented with
the symbol of a galley, seems to indicate an imported religion. [66]
They conceive it unworthy the grandeur of celestial beings to confine
their deities within walls, or to represent them under a human
similitude: [67] woods and groves are their temples; and they affix
names of divinity to that secret power, which they behold with the eye
of adoration alone.
10. No people are more addicted to divination by omens and lots. The
latter is performed in the following simple manner. They cut a twig [68]
from a fruit-tree, and divide it into small pieces, which, distinguished
by certain marks, are thrown promiscuously upon a white garment. Then,
the priest of the canton, if the occasion be public; if private, the
master of the family; after an invocation of the gods, with his eyes
lifted up to heaven, thrice takes out each piece, and, as they come up,
interprets their signification according to the marks fixed upon them.
If the result prove unfavorable, there is no more consultation on the
same affair that day; if propitious, a confirmation by omens is still
required. In common with other nations, the Germans are acquainted with
the practice of auguring from the notes and flight of birds; but it is
peculiar to them to derive admonitions and presages from horses also.
[69] Certain of these animals, milk-white, and untouched by earthly
labor, are pastured at the public expense in the sacred woods and
groves. These, yoked to a consecrated chariot, are accompanied by the
priest, and king, or chief person of the community, who attentively
observe their manner of neighing and snorting; and no kind of augury
is more credited, not only among the populace, but among the nobles
and priests. For the latter consider themselves as the ministers of
the gods, and the horses, as privy to the divine will. Another kind of
divination, by which they explore the event of momentous wars, is to
oblige a prisoner, taken by any means whatsoever from the nation with
whom they are at variance, to fight with a picked man of their own, each
with his own country's arms; and, according as the victory falls, they
presage success to the one or to the other party. [70]
11. On affairs of smaller moment, the chiefs consult; on those of
greater importance, the whole community; yet with this circumstance,
that what is referred to the decision of the people, is first maturely
discussed by the chiefs. [71] They assemble, unless upon some sudden
emergency, on stated days, either at the new or full moon, which they
account the most auspicious season for beginning any enterprise. Nor do
they, in their computation of time, reckon, like us, by the number of
days, but of nights. In this way they arrange their business; in this
way they fix their appointments; so that, with them, the night seems to
lead the day. [72] An inconvenience produced by their liberty is, that
they do not all assemble at a stated time, as if it were in obedience
to a command; but two or three days are lost in the delays of convening.
When they all think fit, [73] they sit down armed. [74] Silence is
proclaimed by the priests, who have on this occasion a coercive power.
Then the king, or chief, and such others as are conspicuous for age,
birth, military renown, or eloquence, are heard; and gain attention
rather from their ability to persuade, than their authority to command.
If a proposal displease, the assembly reject it by an inarticulate
murmur; if it prove agreeable, they clash their javelins; [75] for the
most honorable expression of assent among them is the sound of arms.
12. Before this council, it is likewise allowed to exhibit accusations,
and to prosecute capital offences. Punishments are varied according to
the nature of the crime. Traitors and deserters are hung upon trees:
[76] cowards, dastards, [77] and those guilty of unnatural practices,
[78] are suffocated in mud under a hurdle. [79] This difference of
punishment has in view the principle, that villainy should be exposed
while it is punished, but turpitude concealed. The penalties annexed
to slighter offences [80] are also proportioned to the delinquency. The
convicts are fined in horses and cattle: [81] part of the mulct [82]
goes to the king or state; part to the injured person, or his relations.
In the same assemblies chiefs [83] are also elected, to administer
justice through the cantons and districts. A hundred companions, chosen
from the people, attended upon each of them, to assist them as well with
their advice as their authority.
13. The Germans transact no business, public or private, without being
armed: [84] but it is not customary for any person to assume arms till
the state has approved his ability to use them. Then, in the midst of
the assembly, either one of the chiefs, or the father, or a relation,
equips the youth with a shield and javelin. [85] These are to them the
manly gown; [86] this is the first honor conferred on youth: before this
they are considered as part of a household; afterwards, of the state.
The dignity of chieftain is bestowed even on mere lads, whose descent is