The Germany and the Agricola of Tacitus
of all the islands which have come within the knowledge of the Romans,
stretches on the east towards Germany, on the west towards Spain, [37]
and on the south it is even within sight of Gaul. Its northern extremity
has no opposite land, but is washed by a wide and open sea. Livy, the
most eloquent of ancient, and Fabius Rusticus, of modern writers, have
likened the figure of Britain to an oblong target, or a two-edged axe.
[38] And this is in reality its appearance, exclusive of Caledonia;
whence it has been popularly attributed to the whole island. But that
tract of country, irregularly stretching out to an immense length
towards the furthest shore, is gradually contracted in form of a wedge.
[39] The Roman fleet, at this period first sailing round this remotest
coast, gave certain proof that Britain was an island; and at the same
time discovered and subdued the Orcades, [40] islands till then unknown.
Thule [41] was also distinctly seen, which winter and eternal snow had
hitherto concealed. The sea is reported to be sluggish and laborious to
the rower; and even to be scarcely agitated by winds. The cause of this
stagnation I imagine to be the deficiency of land and mountains where
tempests are generated; and the difficulty with which such a mighty mass
of waters, in an uninterrupted main, is put in motion. [42] It is not
the business of this work to investigate the nature of the ocean and
the tides; a subject which many writers have already undertaken. I shall
only add one circumstance: that the dominion of the sea is nowhere more
extensive; that it carries many currents in this direction and in that;
and its ebbings and flowings are not confined to the shore, but it
penetrates into the heart of the country, and works its way among hills
and mountains, as though it were in its own domain. [43]
11. Who were the first inhabitants of Britain, whether indigenous [44]
or immigrants, is a question involved in the obscurity usual among
barbarians. Their temperament of body is various, whence deductions are
formed of their different origin. Thus, the ruddy hair and large limbs
of the Caledonians [45] point out a German derivation. The swarthy
complexion and curled hair of the Silures, [46] together with their
situation opposite to Spain, render it probable that a colony of the
ancient Iberi [47] possessed themselves of that territory. They who are
nearest Gaul [48] resemble the inhabitants of that country; whether from
the duration of hereditary influence, or whether it be that when
lands jut forward in opposite directions, [49] climate gives the same
condition of body to the inhabitants of both. On a general survey,
however, it appears probable that the Gauls originally took possession
of the neighboring coast. The sacred rites and superstitions [50] of
these people are discernible among the Britons. The languages of the two
nations do not greatly differ. The same audacity in provoking danger,
and irresolution in facing it when present, is observable in both. The
Britons, however, display more ferocity, [51] not being yet softened
by a long peace: for it appears from history that the Gauls were once
renowned in war, till, losing their valor with their liberty, languor
and indolence entered amongst them. The same change has also taken place
among those of the Britons who have been long subdued; [52] but the rest
continue such as the Gauls formerly were.
12. Their military strength consists in infantry; some nations also make
use of chariots in war; in the management of which, the most honorable
person guides the reins, while his dependents fight from the chariot.
[53] The Britons were formerly governed by kings, [54] but at present
they are divided in factions and parties among their chiefs; and this
want of union for concerting some general plan is the most favorable
circumstance to us, in our designs against so powerful a people. It
is seldom that two or three communities concur in repelling the common
danger; and thus, while they engage singly, they are all subdued. The
sky in this country is deformed by clouds and frequent rains; but the
cold is never extremely rigorous. [55] The length of the days greatly
exceeds that in our part of the world. [56] The nights are bright, and,
at the extremity of the island, so short, that the close and return
of day is scarcely distinguished by a perceptible interval. It is even
asserted that, when clouds do not intervene, the splendor of the sun is
visible during the whole night, and that it does not appear to rise and
set, but to move across. [57] The cause of this is, that the extreme
and flat parts of the earth, casting a low shadow, do not throw up the
darkness, and so night falls beneath the sky and the stars. [58] The
soil, though improper for the olive, the vine, and other productions of
warmer climates, is fertile, and suitable for corn. Growth is quick,
but maturation slow; both from the same cause, the great humidity of the
ground and the atmosphere. [59] The earth yields gold and silver [60]
and other metals, the rewards of victory. The ocean produces pearls,
[61] but of a cloudy and livid hue; which some impute to unskilfulness
in the gatherers; for in the Red Sea the fish are plucked from the rocks
alive and vigorous, but in Britain they are collected as the sea throws
them up. For my own part, I can more readily conceive that the defect is
in the nature of the pearls, than in our avarice.
13. The Britons cheerfully submit to levies, tributes, and the other
services of government, if they are not treated injuriously; but such
treatment they bear with impatience, their subjection only extending to
obedience, not to servitude. Accordingly Julius Caesar, [62] the first
Roman who entered Britain with an army, although he terrified the
inhabitants by a successful engagement, and became master of the shore,
may be considered rather to have transmitted the discovery than the
possession of the country to posterity. The civil wars soon succeeded;
the arms of the leaders were turned against their country; and a long
neglect of Britain ensued, which continued even after the establishment
of peace. This Augustus attributed to policy; and Tiberius to the
injunctions of his predecessor. [63] It is certain that Caius Caesar
[64] meditated an expedition into Britain; but his temper, precipitate
in forming schemes, and unsteady in pursuing them, together with the
ill success of his mighty attempts against Germany, rendered the design
abortive. Claudius [65] accomplished the undertaking, transporting his
legions and auxiliaries, and associating Vespasian in the direction
of affairs, which laid the foundation of his future fortune. In this
expedition, nations were subdued, kings made captive, and Vespasian was
held forth to the fates.
14. Aulus Plautius, the first consular governor, and his successor,
Ostorius Scapula, [66] were both eminent for military abilities. Under
them, the nearest part of Britain was gradually reduced into the form of
a province, and a colony of veterans [67] was settled. Certain districts
were bestowed upon king Cogidunus, a prince who continued in perfect
fidelity within our own memory. This was done agreeably to the ancient
and long established practice of the Romans, to make even kings the
instruments of servitude. Didius Gallus, the next governor, preserved
the acquisitions of his predecessors, and added a very few fortified
posts in the remoter parts, for the reputation of enlarging his
province. Veranius succeeded, but died within the year. Suetonius
Paullinus then commanded with success for two years, subduing various
nations, and establishing garrisons. In the confidence with which this
inspired him, he undertook an expedition against the island Mona, [68]
which had furnished the revolters with supplies; and thereby exposed the
settlements behind him to a surprise.
15. For the Britons, relieved from present dread by the absence of the
governor, began to hold conferences, in which they painted the miseries
of servitude, compared their several injuries, and inflamed each other
with such representations as these: "That the only effects of their
patience were more grievous impositions upon a people who submitted with
such facility. Formerly they had one king respectively; now two were set
over them, the lieutenant and the procurator, the former of whom vented
his rage upon their life's blood, the latter upon their properties; [69]
the union or discord [70] of these governors was equally fatal to those
whom they ruled, while the officers of the one, and the centurions
of the other, joined in oppressing them by all kinds of violence and
contumely; so that nothing was exempted from their avarice, nothing from
their lust. In battle it was the bravest who took spoils; but those whom
_they_ suffered to seize their houses, force away their children, and
exact levies, were, for the most part, the cowardly and effeminate; as
if the only lesson of suffering of which they were ignorant was how
to die for their country. Yet how inconsiderable would the number of
invaders appear did the Britons but compute their own forces! From
considerations like these, Germany had thrown off the yoke, [71] though
a river [72] and not the ocean was its barrier. The welfare of their
country, their wives, and their parents called them to arms, while
avarice and luxury alone incited their enemies; who would withdraw as
even the deified Julius had done, if the present race of Britons would
emulate the valor of their ancestors, and not be dismayed at the event
of the first or second engagement. Superior spirit and perseverence were
always the share of the wretched; and the gods themselves now seemed to
compassionate the Britons, by ordaining the absence of the general, and
the detention of his army in another island. The most difficult point,
assembling for the purpose of deliberation, was already accomplished;
and there was always more danger from the discovery of designs like
these, than from their execution."
16. Instigated by such suggestions, they unanimously rose in arms, led
by Boadicea, [73] a woman of royal descent (for they make no distinction
between the sexes in succession to the throne), and attacking the
soldiers dispersed through the garrisons, stormed the fortified posts,
and invaded the colony [74] itself, as the seat of slavery. They
omitted no species of cruelty with which rage and victory could
inspire barbarians; and had not Paullinus, on being acquainted with the
commotion of the province, marched speedily to its relief, Britain would
have been lost. The fortune of a single battle, however, reduced it
to its former subjection; though many still remained in arms, whom
the consciousness of revolt, and particular dread of the governor,
had driven to despair. Paullinus, although otherwise exemplary in his
administration, having treated those who surrendered with severity, and
having pursued too rigorous measures, as one who was revenging his own
personal injury also, Petronius Turpilianus [75] was sent in his stead,
as a person more inclined to lenity, and one who, being unacquainted
with the enemy's delinquency, could more easily accept their penitence.
After having restored things to their former quiet state, he delivered
the command to Trebellius Maximus. [76] Trebellius, indolent, and
inexperienced in military affairs, maintained the tranquillity of the
province by popular manners; for even the barbarians had now learned to
pardon under the seductive influence of vices; and the intervention of
the civil wars afforded a legitimate excuse for his inactivity. Sedition
however infected the soldiers, who, instead of their usual military
services, were rioting in idleness. Trebellius, after escaping the fury