The Germany and the Agricola of Tacitus
of his army by flight and concealment, dishonored and abased, regained a
precarious authority; and a kind of tacit compact took place, of safety
to the general, and licentiousness to the army. This mutiny was not
attended with bloodshed. Vettius Bolanus, [77] succeeding during the
continuance of the civil wars, was unable to introduce discipline into
Britain. The same inaction towards the enemy, and the same insolence in
the camp, continued; except that Bolanus, unblemished in his character,
and not obnoxious by any crime, in some measure substituted affection in
the place of authority.
17. At length, when Vespasian received the possession of Britain
together with the rest of the world, the great commanders and
well-appointed armies which were sent over abated the confidence of
the enemy; and Petilius Cerealis struck terror by an attack upon the
Brigantes, [78] who are reputed to compose the most populous state in
the whole province. Many battles were fought, some of them attended
with much bloodshed; and the greater part of the Brigantes were either
brought into subjection, or involved in the ravages of war. The conduct
and reputation of Cerealis were so brilliant that they might have
eclipsed the splendor of a successor; yet Julius Frontinus, [79] a truly
great man, supported the arduous competition, as far as circumstances
would permit. [80] He subdued the strong and warlike nation of the
Silures, [81] in which expedition, besides the valor of the enemy, he
had the difficulties of the country to struggle with.
18. Such was the state of Britain, and such had been the vicissitudes of
warfare, when Agricola arrived in the middle of summer; [82] at a time
when the Roman soldiers, supposing the expeditions of the year were
concluded, were thinking of enjoying themselves without care, and the
natives, of seizing the opportunity thus afforded them. Not long before
his arrival, the Ordovices [83] had cut off almost an entire corps
of cavalry stationed on their frontiers; and the inhabitants of
the province being thrown into a state of anxious suspense by this
beginning, inasmuch as war was what they wished for, either approved of
the example, or waited to discover the disposition of the new governor.
[84] The season was now far advanced, the troops dispersed through
the country, and possessed with the idea of being suffered to remain
inactive during the rest of the year; circumstances which tended to
retard and discourage any military enterprise; so that it was generally
thought most advisable to be contented with defending the suspected
posts: yet Agricola determined to march out and meet the approaching
danger. For this purpose, he drew together the detachments from the
legions, [85] and a small body of auxiliaries; and when he perceived
that the Ordovices would not venture to descend into the plain, he led
an advanced party in person to the attack, in order to inspire the rest
of his troops with equal ardor. The result of the action was almost the
total extirpation of the Ordovices; when Agricola, sensible that renown
must be followed up, and that the future events of the war would be
determined by the first success, resolved to make an attempt upon the
island Mona, from the occupation of which Paullinus had been summoned
by the general rebellion of Britain, as before related. [86] The
usual deficiency of an unforeseen expedition appearing in the want
of transport vessels, the ability and resolution of the general
were exerted to supply this defect. A select body of auxiliaries,
disencumbered of their baggage, who were well acquainted with the fords,
and accustomed, after the manner of their country, to direct their
horses and manage their arms while swimming, [87] were ordered suddenly
to plunge into the channel; by which movement, the enemy, who expected
the arrival of a fleet, and a formal invasion by sea, were struck with
terror and astonishment, conceiving nothing arduous or insuperable to
troops who thus advanced to the attack. They were therefore induced to
sue for peace, and make a surrender of the island; an event which threw
lustre on the name of Agricola, who, on the very entrance upon his
province, had employed in toils and dangers that time which is usually
devoted to ostentatious parade, and the compliments of office. Nor was
he tempted, in the pride of success, to term that an expedition or a
victory; which was only bridling the vanquished; nor even to announce
his success in laureate despatches. [88] But this concealment of his
glory served to augment it; since men were led to entertain a high idea
of the grandeur of his future views, when such important services were
passed over in silence.
19. Well acquainted with the temper of the province, and taught by the
experience of former governors how little proficiency had been made
by arms, when success was followed by injuries, he next undertook to
eradicate the causes of war. And beginning with himself, and those next
to him, he first laid restrictions upon his own household, a task no
less arduous to most governors than the administration of the province.
He suffered no public business to pass through the hands of his slaves
or freedmen. In admitting soldiers into regular service, [89] to
attendance about his person, he was not influenced by private favor, or
the recommendation or solicitation of the centurions, but considered the
best men as likely to prove the most faithful. He would know everything;
but was content to let some things pass unnoticed. [90] He could pardon
small faults, and use severity to great ones; yet did not always punish,
but was frequently satisfied with penitence. He chose rather to confer
offices and employments upon such as would not offend, than to
condemn those who had offended. The augmentation [91] of tributes and
contributions he mitigated by a just and equal assessment, abolishing
those private exactions which were more grievous to be borne than the
taxes themselves. For the inhabitants had been compelled in mockery to
sit by their own locked-up granaries, to buy corn needlessly, and to
sell it again at a stated price. Long and difficult journeys had also
been imposed upon them; for the several districts, instead of being
allowed to supply the nearest winter quarters, were forced to carry
their corn to remote and devious places; by which means, what was easy
to be procured by all, was converted into an article of gain to a few.
20. By suppressing these abuses in the first year of his administration,
he established a favorable idea of peace, which, through the negligence
or oppression of his predecessors, had been no less dreaded than war.
At the return of summer [92] he assembled his army. On their march, he
commended the regular and orderly, and restrained the stragglers; he
marked out the encampments, [93] and explored in person the estuaries
and forests. At the same time he perpetually harassed the enemy by
sudden incursions; and, after sufficiently alarming them, by an interval
of forbearance, he held to their view the allurements of peace. By
this management, many states, which till that time had asserted their
independence, were now induced to lay aside their animosity, and to
deliver hostages. These districts were surrounded with castles and
forts, disposed with so much attention and judgment, that no part of
Britain, hitherto new to the Roman arms, escaped unmolested.
21. The succeeding winter was employed in the most salutary measures.
In order, by a taste of pleasures, to reclaim the natives from that rude
and unsettled state which prompted them to war, and reconcile them to
quiet and tranquillity, he incited them, by private instigations
and public encouragements, to erect temples, courts of justice, and
dwelling-houses. He bestowed commendations upon those who were prompt
in complying with his intentions, and reprimanded such as were dilatory;
thus promoting a spirit of emulation which had all the force of
necessity. He was also attentive to provide a liberal education for the
sons of their chieftains, preferring the natural genius of the Britons
to the attainments of the Gauls; and his attempts were attended with
such success, that they who lately disdained to make use of the Roman
language, were now ambitious of becoming eloquent. Hence the Roman habit
began to be held in honor, and the toga was frequently worn. At length
they gradually deviated into a taste for those luxuries which stimulate
to vice; porticos, and baths, and the elegancies of the table; and this,
from their inexperience, they termed politeness, whilst, in reality, it
constituted a part of their slavery.
22. The military expeditions of the third year [94] discovered new
nations to the Romans, and their ravages extended as far as the estuary
of the Tay. [95] The enemies were thereby struck with such terror that
they did not venture to molest the army though harassed by violent
tempests; so that they had sufficient opportunity for the erection of
fortresses. [96] Persons of experience remarked, that no general had
ever shown greater skill in the choice of advantageous situations than
Agricola; for not one of his fortified posts was either taken by storm,
or surrendered by capitulation. The garrisons made frequent sallies;
for they were secured against a blockade by a year's provision in their
stores. Thus the winter passed without alarm, and each garrison proved
sufficient for its own defence; while the enemy, who were generally
accustomed to repair the losses of the summer by the successes of the
winter, now equally unfortunate in both seasons, were baffled and driven
to despair. In these transactions, Agricola never attempted to arrogate
to himself the glory of others; but always bore an impartial testimony
to the meritorious actions of his officers, from the centurion to the
commander of a legion. He was represented by some as rather harsh
in reproof; as if the same disposition which made him affable to the
deserving, had inclined him to austerity towards the worthless. But
his anger left no relics behind; his silence and reserve were not to
be dreaded; and he esteemed it more honorable to show marks of open
displeasure, than to entertain secret hatred.
23. The fourth summer [97] was spent in securing the country which had
been overrun; and if the valor of the army and the glory of the Roman
name had permitted it, our conquests would have found a limit within
Britain itself. For the tides of the opposite seas, flowing very far up
the estuaries of Clota and Bodotria, [98] almost intersect the country;
leaving only a narrow neck of land, which was then defended by a
chain of forts. [99] Thus all the territory on this side was held in
subjection, and the remaining enemies were removed, as it were, into
another island.
24. In the fifth campaign, [100] Agricola, crossing over in the first
ship, [101] subdued, by frequent and successful engagements, several
nations till then unknown; and stationed troops in that part of Britain
which is opposite to Ireland, rather with a view to future advantage,
than from any apprehension of danger from that quarter. For the
possession of Ireland, situated between Britain and Spain, and
lying commodiously to the Gallic sea, [102] would have formed a very
beneficial connection between the most powerful parts of the empire.
This island is less than Britain, but larger than those of our sea.
[103] Its soil, climate, and the manners and dispositions of its
inhabitants, are little different from those of Britain. Its ports
and harbors are better known, from the concourse of merchants for the
purposes of commerce. Agricola had received into his protection one
of its petty kings, who had been expelled by a domestic sedition; and