The Notebooks of Leonardo Da Vinci — Complete
nature because, without exception, the figures or persons you meet
in the streets have their eyes on the same level as your own; and if
you place them higher or lower you will see that your drawing will
not be true.
542.
WHY GROUPS OF FIGURES ONE ABOVE ANOTHER ARE TO BE AVOIDED.
The universal practice which painters adopt on the walls of chapels
is greatly and reasonably to be condemned. Inasmuch as they
represent one historical subject on one level with a landscape and
buildings, and then go up a step and paint another, varying the
point [of sight], and then a third and a fourth, in such a way as
that on one wall there are 4 points of sight, which is supreme folly
in such painters. We know that the point of sight is opposite the
eye of the spectator of the scene; and if you would [have me] tell
you how to represent the life of a saint divided into several
pictures on one and the same wall, I answer that you must set out
the foreground with its point of sight on a level with the eye of
the spectator of the scene, and upon this plane represent the more
important part of the story large and then, diminishing by degrees
the figures, and the buildings on various hills and open spaces, you
can represent all the events of the history. And on the remainder of
the wall up to the top put trees, large as compared with the
figures, or angels if they are appropriate to the story, or birds or
clouds or similar objects; otherwise do not trouble yourself with it
for your whole work will be wrong.
543.
A PICTURE OF OBJECTS IN PERSPECTIVE WILL LOOK MORE LIFELIKE WHEN
SEEN FROM THE POINT FROM WHICH THE OBJECTS WERE DRAWN.
If you want to represent an object near to you which is to have the
effect of nature, it is impossible that your perspective should not
look wrong, with every false relation and disagreement of proportion
that can be imagined in a wretched work, unless the spectator, when
he looks at it, has his eye at the very distance and height and
direction where the eye or the point of sight was placed in doing
this perspective. Hence it would be necessary to make a window, or
rather a hole, of the size of your face through which you can look
at the work; and if you do this, beyond all doubt your work, if it
is correct as to light and shade, will have the effect of nature;
nay you will hardly persuade yourself that those objects are
painted; otherwise do not trouble yourself about it, unless indeed
you make your view at least 20 times as far off as the greatest
width or height of the objects represented, and this will satisfy
any spectator placed anywhere opposite to the picture.
If you want the proof briefly shown, take a piece of wood in the
form of a little column, eight times as high as it is thick, like a
column without any plinth or capital; then mark off on a flat wall
40 equal spaces, equal to its width so that between them they make
40 columns resembling your little column; you then must fix,
opposite the centre space, and at 4 braccia from the wall, a thin
strip of iron with a small round hole in the middle about as large
as a big pearl. Close to this hole place a light touching it. Then
place your column against each mark on the wall and draw the outline
of its shadow; afterwards shade it and look through the hole in the
iron plate.
[Footnote: In the original there is a wide space between lines 3 and
4 in which we find two sketches not belonging to the text. It is
unnecessary to give prominence to the points in which my reading
differs from that of M. RAVAISSON or to justify myself, since they
are all of secondary importance and can also be immediately verified
from the photograph facsimile in his edition.]
544.
A diminished object should be seen from the same distance, height
and direction as the point of sight of your eye, or else your
knowledge will produce no good effect.
And if you will not, or cannot, act on this principle--because as
the plane on which you paint is to be seen by several persons you
would need several points of sight which would make it look
discordant and wrong--place yourself at a distance of at least 10
times the size of the objects.
The lesser fault you can fall into then, will be that of
representing all the objects in the foreground of their proper size,
and on whichever side you are standing the objects thus seen will
diminish themselves while the spaces between them will have no
definite ratio. For, if you place yourself in the middle of a
straight row [of objects], and look at several columns arranged in a
line you will see, beyond a few columns separated by intervals, that
the columns touch; and beyond where they touch they cover each
other, till the last column projects but very little beyond the last
but one. Thus the spaces between the columns are by degrees entirely
lost. So, if your method of perspective is good, it will produce the
same effect; this effect results from standing near the line in
which the columns are placed. This method is not satisfactory unless
the objects seen are viewed from a small hole, in the middle of
which is your point of sight; but if you proceed thus your work will
be perfect and will deceive the beholder, who will see the columns
as they are here figured.
Here the eye is in the middle, at the point _a_ and near to the
columns.
[Footnote: The diagram which stands above this chapter in the
original with the note belonging to it: "a b _e la ripruova_" (_a b_
is the proof) has obviously no connection with the text. The second
sketch alone is reproduced and stands in the original between lines
22 and 23.]
545.
If you cannot arrange that those who look at your work should stand
at one particular point, when constructing your work, stand back
until your eye is at least 20 times as far off as the greatest
height and width of your work. This will make so little difference
when the eye of the spectator moves, that it will be hardly
appreciable, and it will look very good.
If the point of sight is at _t_ you would make the figures on the
circle _d b e_ all of one size, as each of them bears the same
relation to the point _t_. But consider the diagram given below and
you will see that this is wrong, and why I shall make _b_ smaller
than _d e_ [Footnote 8: The second diagram of this chapter stands in
the original between lines 8 and 9.].
It is easy to understand that if 2 objects equal to each other are
placed side by side the one at 3 braccia distance looks smaller than
that placed at 2 braccia. This however is rather theoretical than
for practice, because you stand close by [Footnote 11: Instead of
'_se preso_' (=_sie presso_) M. RAVAISSON reads '_sempre se_' which
gives rise to the unmeaning rendering: '_parceque toujours_ ...'].
All the objects in the foreground, whether large or small, are to be
drawn of their proper size, and if you see them from a distance they
will appear just as they ought, and if you see them close they will
diminish of themselves.
[Footnote 15: Compare No. 526 line 18.] Take care that the vertical
plan on which you work out the perspective of the objects seen is of
the same form as the wall on which the work is to be executed.
546.
OF PAINTING.
The size of the figures represented ought to show you the distance
they are seen from. If you see a figure as large as nature you know
it appears to be close to the eye.
547.
WHERE A SPECTATOR SHOULD STAND TO LOOK AT A PICTURE.
Supposing _a b_ to be the picture and _d_ to be the light, I say
that if you place yourself between _c_ and _e_ you will not
understand the picture well and particularly if it is done in oils,
or still more if it is varnished, because it will be lustrous and
somewhat of the nature of a mirror. And for this reason the nearer
you go towards the point _c_, the less you will see, because the
rays of light falling from the window on the picture are reflected
to that point. But if you place yourself between _e_ and _d_ you
will get a good view of it, and the more so as you approach the
point _d_, because that spot is least exposed to these reflected
rays of light.
III.
THE PRACTICAL METHODS OF LIGHT AND SHADE AND AERIAL PERSPECTIVE.
Gradations of light and shade.
548.
OF PAINTING: OF THE DARKNESS OF THE SHADOWS, OR I MAY SAY, THE
BRIGHTNESS OF THE LIGHTS.
Although practical painters attribute to all shaded objects--trees,
fields, hair, beards and skin--four degrees of darkness in each
colour they use: that is to say first a dark foundation, secondly a
spot of colour somewhat resembling the form of the details, thirdly
a somewhat brighter and more defined portion, fourthly the lights
which are more conspicuous than other parts of the figure; still to
me it appears that these gradations are infinite upon a continuous
surface which is in itself infinitely divisible, and I prove it
thus:--[Footnote 7: See Pl. XXXI, No. 1; the two upper sketches.]
Let _a g_ be a continuous surface and let _d_ be the light which
illuminates it; I say--by the 4th [proposition] which says that that
side of an illuminated body is most highly lighted which is nearest
to the source of light--that therefore _g_ must be darker than _c_
in proportion as the line _d g_ is longer than the line _d c_, and
consequently that these gradations of light--or rather of shadow,
are not 4 only, but may be conceived of as infinite, because _c d_
is a continuous surface and every continuous surface is infinitely
divisible; hence the varieties in the length of lines extending
between the light and the illuminated object are infinite, and the
proportion of the light will be the same as that of the length of
the lines between them; extending from the centre of the luminous
body to the surface of the illuminated object.
On the choice of light for a picture (549-554).
549.
HOW THE PAINTER MUST PLACE HIMSELF WITH REFERENCE TO THE LIGHT, TO
GIVE THE EFFECT OF RELIEF.
Let _a b_ be the window, _m_ the point of light. I say that on
whichever side the painter places himself he will be well placed if
only his eye is between the shaded and the illuminated portions of
the object he is drawing; and this place you will find by putting
yourself between the point _m_ and the division between the shadow
and the light on the object to be drawn.
550.
THAT SHADOWS CAST BY A PARTICULAR LIGHT SHOULD BE AVOIDED, BECAUSE
THEY ARE EQUALLY STRONG AT THE ENDS AND AT THE BEGINNING.
The shadows cast by the sun or any other particular light have not a
pleasing effect on the body to which they belong, because the parts
remain confuse, being divided by distinct outlines of light and
shade. And the shadows are of equal strength at the end and at the
beginning.
551.
HOW LIGHT SHOULD BE THROWN UPON FIGURES.
The light must be arranged in accordance with the natural conditions
under which you wish to represent your figures: that is, if you
represent them in the sunshine make the shadows dark with large
spaces of light, and mark their shadows and those of all the
surrounding objects strongly on the ground. And if you represent
them as in dull weather give little difference of light and shade,
without any shadows at their feet. If you represent them as within
doors, make a strong difference between the lights and shadows, with
shadows on the ground. If the window is screened and the walls
white, there will be little difference of light. If it is lighted by
firelight make the high lights ruddy and strong, and the shadows
dark, and those cast on the walls and on the floor will be clearly
defined and the farther they are from the body the broader and
longer will they be. If the light is partly from the fire and partly
from the outer day, that of day will be the stronger and that of the