Politics: A Treatise on Government
De Anima: Torstrik, 1862; Trendelenburg, 2nd edition, 1877, with English
translation, E. Wallace, 1882; Biehl, 1884, 1896; with English, R. D.
Hicks, 1907.
Ethica: J. S. Brewer (Nicomachean), 1836; W. E. Jelf, 1856; J. E. T.
Rogers, 1865; A. Grant, 1857-8, 1866, 1874, 1885; E. Moore, 1871, 1878,
4th edition, 1890; Ramsauer (Nicomachean), 1878, Susemihl, 1878, 1880,
revised by O. Apelt, 1903; A. Grant, 1885; I. Bywater (Nicomachean),
1890; J. Burnet, 1900.
Historia Animalium: Schneider, 1812; Aubert and Wimmer, 1860, Dittmeyer,
1907.
Metaphysica: Schwegler, 1848; W. Christ, 1899.
Organon: Waitz, 1844-6.
Poetica: Vahlen, 1867, 1874, with Notes by E. Moore, 1875; with English
translation by E. R. Wharton, 1883, 1885; Uberweg, 1870, 1875; with
German translation, Susemihl, 1874; Schmidt, 1875; Christ, 1878; I.
Bywater, 1898; T. G. Tucker, 1899.
De Republics, Atheniensium: Text and facsimile of Papyrus, F. G. Kenyon,
1891, 3rd edition, 1892; Kaibel and Wilamowitz--Moel-lendorf, 1891, 3rd
edition, 1898; Van Herwerden and Leeuwen (from Kenyon's text), 1891;
Blass, 1892, 1895, 1898, 1903; J. E. Sandys, 1893.
Politica: Susemihl, 1872; with German, 1878, 3rd edition, 1882; Susemihl
and Hicks, 1894, etc.; O. Immisch, 1909.
Physica: C. Prantl, 1879.
Rhetorica: Stahr, 1862; Sprengel (with Latin text), 1867; Cope and
Sandys, 1877; Roemer, 1885, 1898.
ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS OF ONE OR MORE WORKS: De Anima (with Parva
Naturalia), by W. A. Hammond, 1902. Ethica: Of Morals to Nicomachus, by
E. Pargiter, 1745; with Politica, by J. Gillies, 1797, 1804, 1813;
with Rhetorica and Poetica, by T. Taylor, 1818, and later editions.
Nicomachean Ethics, 1819; mainly from text of Bekker, by D. P. Chase,
1847; revised 1861, and later editions with an introductory essay by
G. H. Lewes (Camelot Classics), 1890; re-edited by J. M. Mitchell (New
Universal Library), 1906, 1910; with an introductory essay by Prof.
J.H. Smith (Everyman's Library), 1911; by R.W.Browne (Bohn's Classical
Library), 1848, etc.; by R. Williams, 1869, 1876; by W. M. Hatch and
others (with translation of paraphrase attributed to Andronicus of
Rhodes), edited by E. Hatch, 1879; by F, H. Peters, 1881; J. E. C.
Welldon, 1892; J. Gillies (Lubbock's Hundred Books), 1893. Historia
Animalium, by R. Creswell (Bohn's Classical Library), 1848; with
Treatise on Physiognomy, by T. Taylor, 1809. Metaphysica, by T. Taylor,
1801; by J. H. M'Mahon (Bohn's Classical Library), 1848. Organon, with
Porphyry's Introduction, by O. F. Owen (Bohn's Classical Library),
1848. Posterior Analytics, E. Poste, 1850; E. S. Bourchier, 1901; On
Fallacies, E. Poste, 1866. Parva Naturalia (Greek and English), by G. R.
T. Ross, 1906; with De Anima, by W. A. Hammond, 1902. Youth and Old Age,
Life and Death and Respiration, W. Ogle, 1897. Poetica, with Notes
from the French of D'Acier, 1705; by H. J. Pye, 1788, 1792; T. Twining,
1789,1812, with Preface and Notes by H. Hamilton, 1851; Treatise on
Rhetorica and Poetica, by T. Hobbes (Bohn's Classical Library), 1850;
by Wharton, 1883 (see Greek version), S. H. Butcher, 1895, 1898, 3rd
edition, 1902; E. S. Bourchier, 1907; by Ingram Bywater, 1909. De
Partibus Animalium, W. Ogle, 1882. De Republica Athenientium, by E.
Poste, 1891; F. G. Kenyon, 1891; T. J. Dymes, 1891. De Virtutibus et
Vitiis, by W. Bridgman, 1804. Politica, from the French of Regius,
1598; by W. Ellis, 1776, 1778, 1888 (Morley's Universal Library), 1893
(Lubbock's Hundred Books); by E. Walford (with AEconomics, and Life by
Dr. Gillies) (Bohn's Classical Library), 1848; J. E. C. Welldon, 1883;
B. Jowett, 1885; with Introduction and Index by H. W. C. Davis, 1905;
Books i. iii. iv. (vii.) from Bekker's text by W. E. Bolland, with
Introduction by A. Lang, 1877. Problemata (with writings of other
philosophers), 1597, 1607, 1680, 1684, etc. Rhetorica: A summary by T.
Hobbes, 1655 (?), new edition, 1759; by the translators of the Art of
Thinking, 1686, 1816; by D. M. Crimmin, 1812; J. Gillies, 1823;
Anon. 1847; J. E. C. Welldon, 1886; R. C. Jebb, with Introduction
and Supplementary Notes by J. E. Sandys, 1909 (see under Poetica and
Ethica). Secreta Secretorum (supposititious work), Anon. 1702; from the
Hebrew version by M. Gaster, 1907, 1908. Version by Lydgate and Burgh,
edited by R. Steele (E.E.T.S.), 1894, 1898.
LIFE, ETC.: J. W. Blakesley, 1839; A Crichton (Jardine's Naturalist's
Library), 1843; J. S. Blackie, Four Phases of Morals, Socrates,
Aristotle, etc., 1871; G. Grote, Aristotle, edited by A. Bain and G.
C. Robertson, 1872, 1880; E. Wallace, Outlines of the Philosophy of
Aristotle, 1875, 1880; A. Grant (Ancient Classics for English readers),
1877; T. Davidson, Aristotle and Ancient Educational Ideals (Great
Educators), 1892.
A TREATISE ON GOVERNMENT
BOOK I
CHAPTER I
As we see that every city is a society, and every society Ed. is
established for some good purpose; for an apparent [Bekker 1252a] good
is the spring of all human actions; it is evident that this is the
principle upon which they are every one founded, and this is more
especially true of that which has for its object the best possible, and
is itself the most excellent, and comprehends all the rest. Now this is
called a city, and the society thereof a political society; for those
who think that the principles of a political, a regal, a family, and
a herile government are the same are mistaken, while they suppose that
each of these differ in the numbers to whom their power extends, but
not in their constitution: so that with them a herile government is one
composed of a very few, a domestic of more, a civil and a regal of still
more, as if there was no difference between a large family and a small
city, or that a regal government and a political one are the same, only
that in the one a single person is continually at the head of public
affairs; in the other, that each member of the state has in his turn a
share in the government, and is at one time a magistrate, at another
a private person, according to the rules of political science. But now
this is not true, as will be evident to any one who will consider this
question in the most approved method. As, in an inquiry into every other
subject, it is necessary to separate the different parts of which it is
compounded, till we arrive at their first elements, which are the most
minute parts thereof; so by the same proceeding we shall acquire a
knowledge of the primary parts of a city and see wherein they differ
from each other, and whether the rules of art will give us any
assistance in examining into each of these things which are mentioned.
CHAPTER II
Now if in this particular science any one would attend to its original
seeds, and their first shoot, he would then as in others have the
subject perfectly before him; and perceive, in the first place, that it
is requisite that those should be joined together whose species cannot
exist without each other, as the male and the female, for the business
of propagation; and this not through choice, but by that natural impulse
which acts both upon plants and animals also, for the purpose of their
leaving behind them others like themselves. It is also from natural
causes that some beings command and others obey, that each may obtain
their mutual safety; for a being who is endowed with a mind capable
of reflection and forethought is by nature the superior and governor,
whereas he whose excellence is merely corporeal is formect to be a
slave; whence it follows that the different state of master [1252b] and
slave is equally advantageous to both. But there is a natural difference
between a female and a slave: for nature is not like the artists
who make the Delphic swords for the use of the poor, but for every
particular purpose she has her separate instruments, and thus her ends
are most complete, for whatsoever is employed on one subject only,
brings that one to much greater perfection than when employed on many;
and yet among the barbarians, a female and a slave are upon a level in
the community, the reason for which is, that amongst them there are none
qualified by nature to govern, therefore their society can be nothing
but between slaves of different sexes. For which reason the poets say,
it is proper for the Greeks to govern the barbarians, as if a barbarian
and a slave were by nature one. Now of these two societies the domestic
is the first, and Hesiod is right when he says, "First a house, then
a wife, then an ox for the plough," for the poor man has always an ox
before a household slave. That society then which nature has established
for daily support is the domestic, and those who compose it are called
by Charondas _homosipuoi_, and by Epimenides the Cretan _homokapnoi_;
but the society of many families, which was first instituted for their
lasting, mutual advantage, is called a village, and a village is most
naturally composed of the descendants of one family, whom some persons
call homogalaktes, the children and the children's children thereof: for
which reason cities were originally governed by kings, as the barbarian
states now are, which are composed of those who had before submitted to
kingly government; for every family is governed by the elder, as are the
branches thereof, on account of their relationship thereunto, which
is what Homer says, "Each one ruled his wife and child;" and in this
scattered manner they formerly lived. And the opinion which universally
prevails, that the gods themselves are subject to kingly government,
arises from hence, that all men formerly were, and many are so now; and
as they imagined themselves to be made in the likeness of the gods, so
they supposed their manner of life must needs be the same. And when many
villages so entirely join themselves together as in every respect to
form but one society, that society is a city, and contains in itself, if
I may so speak, the end and perfection of government: first founded that
we might live, but continued that we may live happily. For which reason
every city must be allowed to be the work of nature, if we admit that
the original society between male and female is; for to this as their
end all subordinate societies tend, and the end of everything is the
nature of it. For what every being is in its most perfect state, that
certainly is the nature of that being, whether it be a man, a horse, or
a house: besides, whatsoever produces the final cause and the end which
we [1253a] desire, must be best; but a government complete in itself is
that final cause and what is best. Hence it is evident that a city is
a natural production, and that man is naturally a political animal, and
that whosoever is naturally and not accidentally unfit for society, must
be either inferior or superior to man: thus the man in Homer, who is
reviled for being "without society, without law, without family." Such
a one must naturally be of a quarrelsome disposition, and as solitary as
the birds. The gift of speech also evidently proves that man is a more
social animal than the bees, or any of the herding cattle: for nature,
as we say, does nothing in vain, and man is the only animal who enjoys
it. Voice indeed, as being the token of pleasure and pain, is imparted
to others also, and thus much their nature is capable of, to perceive
pleasure and pain, and to impart these sensations to others; but it is
by speech that we are enabled to express what is useful for us, and what
is hurtful, and of course what is just and what is unjust: for in
this particular man differs from other animals, that he alone has
a perception of good and evil, of just and unjust, and it is a
participation of these common sentiments which forms a family and a
city. Besides, the notion of a city naturally precedes that of a family