Politics: A Treatise on Government
As there is one end common to a man both as an individual and a citizen,
it is evident that a good man and a good citizen must have the same
object in view; it is evident that all the virtues which lead to rest
are necessary; for, as we have often said, the end of war is peace, of
labour, rest; but those virtues whose object is rest, and those also
whose object is labour, are necessary for a liberal life and rest; for
we want a supply of many necessary things that we may be at rest. A city
therefore ought to be temperate, brave, and patient; for, according to
the proverb, "Rest is not for slaves;" but those who cannot bravely face
danger are the slaves of those who attack them. Bravery, therefore, and
patience are necessary for labour, philosophy for rest, and temperance
and justice in both; but these chiefly in time of peace and rest; for
war obliges men to be just and temperate; but the enjoyment of pleasure,
with the rest of peace, is more apt to produce insolence; those indeed
who are easy in their circumstances, and enjoy everything that can
make them happy, have great occasion for the virtues of temperance and
justice. Thus if there are, as the poets tell us, any inhabitants in
the happy isles, to these a higher degree of philosophy, temperance, and
justice will be necessary, as they live at their ease in the full plenty
of every sensual pleasure. It is evident, therefore, that these virtues
are necessary in every state that would be happy or worthy; for he who
is worthless can never enjoy real good, much less is he qualified to
be at rest; but can appear good only by labour and being at war, but
in peace and at rest the meanest of creatures. For which reason virtue
should not be cultivated as the Lacedaemonians did; for they did not
differ from others in their opinion concerning the supreme good, but in
[1334b] imagining this good was to be procured by a particular virtue;
but since there are greater goods than those of war, it is evident
that the enjoyment of those which are valuable in themselves should be
desired, rather than those virtues which are useful in war; but how and
by what means this is to be acquired is now to be considered. We have
already assigned three causes on which it will depend; nature, custom,
and reason, arid shown what sort of men nature must produce for this
purpose; it remains then that we determine which we shall first begin by
in education, reason or custom, for these ought always to preserve the
most entire harmony with each other; for it may happen that reason may
err from the end proposed, and be corrected by custom. In the first
place, it is evident that in this as in other things, its beginning
or production arises from some principle, and its end also arises from
another principle, which is itself an end. Now, with us, reason and
intelligence are the end of nature; our production, therefore, and our
manners ought to be accommodated to both these. In the next place, as
the soul and the body are two distinct things, so also we see that the
soul is divided into two parts, the reasoning and not-reasoning, with
their habits which are two in number, one belonging to each, namely
appetite and intelligence; and as the body is in production before the
soul, so is the not-reasoning part of the soul before the reasoning; and
this is evident; for anger, will and desire are to be seen in children
nearly as soon as they are born; but reason and intelligence spring up
as they grow to maturity. The body, therefore, necessarily demands our
care before the soul; next the appetites for the sake of the mind; the
body for the sake of the soul.
CHAPTER XVI
If then the legislator ought to take care that the bodies of the
children are as perfect as possible, his first attention ought to be
given to matrimony; at what time and in what situation it is proper that
the citizens should engage in the nuptial contract. Now, with respect
to this alliance, the legislator ought both to consider the parties and
their time of life, that they may grow old at the same part of time, and
that their bodily powers may not be different; that is to say, the man
being able to have children, but the woman too old to bear them; or, on
the contrary, the woman be young enough to produce children, but the man
too old to be a father; for from such a situation discords and disputes
continually arise. In the next place, with respect to the succession of
children, there ought not to be too great an interval of time between
them and their parents; for when there is, the parent can receive no
benefit from his child's affection, or the child any advantage from his
father's protection; [1335a] neither should the difference in years be
too little, as great inconveniences may arise from it; as it prevents
that proper reverence being shown to a father by a boy who considers him
as nearly his equal in age, and also from the disputes it occasions in
the economy of the family. But, to return from this digression, care
ought to be taken that the bodies of the children may be such as will
answer the expectations of the legislator; this also will be affected
by the same means. Since season for the production of children is
determined (not exactly, but to speak in general), namely, for the man
till seventy years, and the woman till fifty, the entering into the
marriage state, as far as time is concerned, should be regulated by
these periods. It is extremely bad for the children when the father
is too young; for in all animals whatsoever the parts of the young are
imperfect, and are more likely to be productive of females than males,
and diminutive also in size; the same thing of course necessarily holds
true in men; as a proof of this you may see in those cities where the
men and women usually marry very young, the people in general are very
small and ill framed; in child-birth also the women suffer more, and
many of them die. And thus some persons tell us the oracle of Traezenium
should be explained, as if it referred to the many women who were
destroyed by too early marriages, and not their gathering their fruits
too soon. It is also conducive to temperance not to marry too soon; for
women who do so are apt to be intemperate. It also prevents the bodies
of men from acquiring their full size if they marry before their growth
is completed; for this is the determinate period, which prevents any
further increase; for which reason the proper time for a woman to marry
is eighteen, for a man thirty-seven, a little more or less; for when
they marry at that time their bodies are in perfection, and they will
also cease to have children at a proper time; and moreover with respect
to the succession of the children, if they have them at the time which
may reasonably be expected, they will be just arriving into perfection
when their parents are sinking down under the load of seventy years.
And thus much for the time which is proper for marriage; but moreover
a proper season of the year should be observed, as many persons do now,
and appropriate the winter for this business. The married couple ought
also to regard the precepts of physicians and naturalists, each of whom
have treated on these [1335b] subjects. What is the fit disposition of
the body will be better mentioned when we come to speak of the education
of the child; we will just slightly mention a few particulars. Now,
there is no occasion that any one should have the habit of body of a
wrestler to be either a good citizen, or to enjoy a good constitution,
or to be the father of healthy children; neither should he be infirm or
too much dispirited by misfortunes, but between both these. He ought to
have a habit of labour, but not of too violent labour; nor should that
be confined to one object only, as the wrestler's is; but to such things
as are proper for freemen. These things are equally necessary both for
men and women. Women with child should also take care that their diet is
not too sparing, and that they use sufficient exercise; which it will be
easy for the legislator to effect if he commands them once every day
to repair to the worship of the gods who are supposed to preside over
matrimony. But, contrary to what is proper for the body, the mind ought
to be kept as tranquil as possible; for as plants partake of the nature
of the soil, so does the child receive much of the disposition of the
mother. With respect to the exposing or bringing up of children, let
it be a law, that nothing imperfect or maimed shall be brought
up,.......... As the proper time has been pointed out for a man and a
woman to enter into the marriage state, so also let us determine
how long it is advantageous for the community that they should have
children; for as the children of those who are too young are imperfect
both in body and mind, so also those whose parents are too old are weak
in both: while therefore the body continues in perfection, which (as
some poets say, who reckon the different periods of life by sevens)
is till fifty years, or four or five more, the children may be equally
perfect; but when the parents are past that age it is better they should
have no more. With respect to any connection between a man and a woman,
or a woman and a man, when either of the parties are betrothed, let
it be held in utter detestation [1336a] on any pretext whatsoever;
but should any one be guilty of such a thing after the marriage is
consummated, let his infamy be as great as his guilt deserves.
CHAPTER XVII
When a child is born it must be supposed that the strength of its body
will depend greatly upon the quality of its food. Now whoever will
examine into the nature of animals, and also observe those people who
are very desirous their children should acquire a warlike habit, will
find that they feed them chiefly with milk, as being best accommodated
to their bodies, but without wine, to prevent any distempers: those
motions also which are natural to their age are very serviceable; and
to prevent any of their limbs from being crooked, on account of their
extreme ductility, some people even now use particular machines that
their bodies may not be distorted. It is also useful to enure them to
the cold when they are very little; for this is very serviceable for
their health; and also to enure them to the business of war; for which
reason it is customary with many of the barbarians to dip their children
in rivers when the water is cold; with others to clothe them very
slightly, as among the Celts; for whatever it is possible to accustom
children to, it is best to accustom them to it at first, but to do it
by degrees: besides, boys have naturally a habit of loving the cold, on
account of the heat. These, then, and such-like things ought to be the
first object of our attention: the next age to this continues till
the child is five years old; during which time it is best to teach him
nothing at all, not even necessary labour, lest it should hinder his
growth; but he should be accustomed to use so much motion as not to
acquire a lazy habit of body; which he will get by various means and by
play also: his play also ought to be neither illiberal nor too laborious
nor lazy. Their governors and preceptors also should take care what sort
of tales and stories it may be proper for them to hear; for all these
ought to pave the way for their future instruction: for which reason
the generality of their play should be imitations of what they are
afterwards to do seriously. They too do wrong who forbid by laws
the disputes between boys and their quarrels, for they contribute to
increase their growth--as they are a sort of exercise to the body:
for the struggles of the heart and the compression of the spirits give
strength to those who labour, which happens to boys in their disputes.