Politics: A Treatise on Government
nations, who procure one necessary with another, but never sell
anything; as giving and receiving wine for corn and the like. This
sort of barter is not contradictory to nature, nor is it any species of
money-getting; but is necessary in procuring that subsistence which is
so consonant thereunto. But this barter introduced the use of money, as
might be expected; for a convenient place from whence to import what you
wanted, or to export what you had a surplus of, being often at a great
distance, money necessarily made its way into commerce; for it is not
everything which is naturally most useful that is easiest of carriage;
for which reason they invented something to exchange with each other
which they should mutually give and take, that being really valuable
itself, should have the additional advantage of being of easy
conveyance, for the purposes of life, as iron and silver, or anything
else of the same nature: and this at first passed in value simply
according to its weight or size; but in process of time it had a certain
stamp, to save the trouble of weighing, which stamp expressed its value.
[1257b]
Money then being established as the necessary medium of exchange,
another species of money-getting soon took place, namely, by buying
and selling, at probably first in a simple manner, afterwards with more
skill and experience, where and how the greatest profits might be made.
For which reason the art of money-getting seems to be chiefly conversant
about trade, and the business of it to be able to tell where the
greatest profits can be made, being the means of procuring abundance
of wealth and possessions: and thus wealth is very often supposed to
consist in the quantity of money which any one possesses, as this is the
medium by which all trade is conducted and a fortune made, others again
regard it as of no value, as being of none by nature, but arbitrarily
made so by compact; so that if those who use it should alter their
sentiments, it would be worth nothing, as being of no service for
any necessary purpose. Besides, he who abounds in money often wants
necessary food; and it is impossible to say that any person is in good
circumstances when with all his possessions he may perish with hunger.
Like Midas in the fable, who from his insatiable wish had everything he
touched turned into gold. For which reason others endeavour to procure
other riches and other property, and rightly, for there are other riches
and property in nature; and these are the proper objects of economy:
while trade only procures money, not by all means, but by the exchange
of it, and for that purpose it is this which it is chiefly employed
about, for money is the first principle and the end of trade; nor are
there any bounds to be set to what is thereby acquired. Thus also there
are no limits to the art of medicine, with respect to the health which
it attempts to procure; the same also is true of all other arts; no line
can be drawn to terminate their bounds, the several professors of them
being desirous to extend them as far as possible. (But still the means
to be employed for that purpose are limited; and these are the limits
beyond which the art cannot proceed.) Thus in the art of acquiring
riches there are no limits, for the object of that is money and
possessions; but economy has a boundary, though this has not: for
acquiring riches is not the business of that, for which reason it should
seem that some boundary should be set to riches, though we see the
contrary to this is what is practised; for all those who get riches add
to their money without end; the cause of which is the near connection
of these two arts with each other, which sometimes occasions the one to
change employments with the other, as getting of money is their common
object: for economy requires the possession of wealth, but not on
its own account but with another view, to purchase things necessary
therewith; but the other procures it merely to increase it: so that some
persons are confirmed in their belief, that this is the proper object
of economy, and think that for this purpose money should be saved and
hoarded up without end; the reason for which disposition is, that they
are intent upon living, but not upon living well; and this desire being
boundless in its extent, the means which they aim at for that purpose
are boundless also; and those who propose to live well, often confine
that to the enjoyment of the pleasures of sense; so that as this also
seems to depend upon what a man has, all their care is to get money,
and hence arises the other cause for this art; for as this enjoyment is
excessive in its degree, they endeavour to procure means proportionate
to supply it; and if they cannot do this merely by the art of dealing in
money, they will endeavour to do it by other ways, and apply all their
powers to a purpose they were not by nature intended for. Thus, for
instance, courage was intended to inspire fortitude, not to get money
by; neither is this the end of the soldier's or the physician's art,
but victory and health. But such persons make everything subservient to
money-getting, as if this was the only end; and to the end everything
ought to refer.
We have now considered that art of money-getting which is not necessary,
and have seen in what manner we became in want of it; and also that
which is necessary, which is different from it; for that economy which
is natural, and whose object is to provide food, is not like this
unlimited in its extent, but has its bounds.
CHAPTER X
We have now determined what was before doubtful, whether or no the art
of getting money is his business who is at the head of a family or a
state, and though not strictly so, it is however very necessary; for
as a politician does not make men, but receiving them from the hand of
nature employs them to proper purposes; thus the earth, or the sea, or
something else ought to supply them with provisions, and this it is the
business of the master of the family to manage properly; for it is not
the weaver's business to make yarn, but to use it, and to distinguish
what is good and useful from what is bad and of no service; and indeed
some one may inquire why getting money should be a part of economy when
the art of healing is not, as it is as requisite that the family should
be in health as that they should eat, or have anything else which is
necessary; and as it is indeed in some particulars the business both of
the master of the family, and he to whom the government of the state
is entrusted, to see after the health of those under their care, but in
others not, but the physician's; so also as to money; in some respects
it is the business of the master of the family, in others not, but of
the servant; but as we have already said, it is chiefly nature's, for
it is her part to supply her offspring with food; for everything finds
nourishment left for it in what produced it; for which reason
the natural riches of all men arise from fruits and animals. Now
money-making, as we say, being twofold, it may be applied to two
purposes, the service of the house or retail trade; of which the first
is necessary and commendable, the other justly censurable; for it has
not its origin in [1258b] nature, but by it men gain from each other;
for usury is most reasonably detested, as it is increasing our fortune
by money itself, and not employing it for the purpose it was originally
intended, namely exchange.
And this is the explanation of the name (TOKOS), which means the
breeding of money. For as offspring resemble their parents, so usury
is money bred of money. Whence of all forms of money-making it is most
against nature.
CHAPTER XI
Having already sufficiently considered the general principles of this
subject, let us now go into the practical part thereof; the one is a
liberal employment for the mind, the other necessary. These things are
useful in the management of one's affairs; to be skilful in the nature
of cattle, which are most profitable, and where, and how; as for
instance, what advantage will arise from keeping horses, or oxen, or
sheep, or any other live stock; it is also necessary to be acquainted
with the comparative value of these things, and which of them in
particular places are worth most; for some do better in one place, some
in another. Agriculture also should be understood, and the management
of arable grounds and orchards; and also the care of bees, and fish, and
birds, from whence any profit may arise; these are the first and most
proper parts of domestic management.
With respect to gaining money by exchange, the principal method of doing
this is by merchandise, which is carried on in three different ways,
either by sending the commodity for sale by sea or by land, or else
selling it on the place where it grows; and these differ from each other
in this, that the one is more profitable, the other safer. The second
method is by usury. The third by receiving wages for work done, and
this either by being employed in some mean art, or else in mere bodily
labour. There is also a third species of improving a fortune, that is
something between this and the first; for it partly depends upon
nature, partly upon exchange; the subject of which is, things that are
immediately from the earth, or their produce, which, though they bear
no fruit, are yet useful, such as selling of timber and the whole art of
metallurgy, which includes many different species, for there are various
sorts of things dug out of the earth.
These we have now mentioned in general, but to enter into particulars
concerning each of them, though it might be useful to the artist, would
be tiresome to dwell on. Now of all the works of art, those are the most
excellent wherein chance has the least to do, and those are the meanest
which deprave the body, those the most servile in which bodily strength
alone is chiefly wanted, those most illiberal which require least skill;
but as there are books written on these subjects by some persons, as
by Chares the Panian, and Apollodorus the Lemnian, upon husbandry and
planting; and by others on other matters, [1259b] let those who have
occasion consult them thereon; besides, every person should collect
together whatsoever he hears occasionally mentioned, by means of which
many of those who aimed at making a fortune have succeeded in their
intentions; for all these are useful to those who make a point of
getting money, as in the contrivance of Thales the Milesian (which was
certainly a gainful one, but as it was his it was attributed to
his wisdom, though the method he used was a general one, and would
universally succeed), when they reviled him for his poverty, as if the
study of philosophy was useless: for they say that he, perceiving by his
skill in astrology that there would be great plenty of olives that year,
while it was yet winter, having got a little money, he gave earnest for
all the oil works that were in Miletus and Chios, which he hired at a
low price, there being no one to bid against him; but when the season
came for making oil, many persons wanting them, he all at once let them
upon what terms he pleased; and raising a large sum of money by that
means, convinced them that it was easy for philosophers to be rich if
they chose it, but that that was not what they aimed at; in this manner
is Thales said to have shown his wisdom. It indeed is, as we have
said, generally gainful for a person to contrive to make a monopoly of
anything; for which reason some cities also take this method when they
want money, and monopolise their commodities. There was a certain person
in Sicily who laid out a sum of money which was deposited in his hand in
buying up all the iron from the iron merchants; so that when the dealers