The Ten Books on Architecture
of this superfluity of moisture, yet they can be kept to a great age
without rotting, because the liquid contained within their substances
has a bitter taste which by its pungency prevents the entrance of decay
or of those little creatures which are destructive. Hence, buildings
made of these kinds of wood last for an unending period of time.
13. The cedar and the juniper tree have the same uses and good
qualities, but, while the cypress and pine yield resin, from the cedar
is produced an oil called cedar-oil. Books as well as other things
smeared with this are not hurt by worms or decay. The foliage of this
tree is like that of the cypress but the grain of the wood is straight.
The statue of Diana in the temple at Ephesus is made of it, and so are
the coffered ceilings both there and in all other famous fanes, because
that wood is everlasting. The tree grows chiefly in Crete, Africa, and
in some districts of Syria.
14. The larch, known only to the people of the towns on the banks of the
river Po and the shores of the Adriatic, is not only preserved from
decay and the worm by the great bitterness of its sap, but also it
cannot be kindled with fire nor ignite of itself, unless like stone in a
limekiln it is burned with other wood. And even then it does not take
fire nor produce burning coals, but after a long time it slowly consumes
away. This is because there is a very small proportion of the elements
of fire and air in its composition, which is a dense and solid mass of
moisture and the earthy, so that it has no open pores through which fire
can find its way; but it repels the force of fire and does not let
itself be harmed by it quickly. Further, its weight will not let it
float in water, so that when transported it is loaded on shipboard or on
rafts made of fir.
15. It is worth while to know how this wood was discovered. The divine
Caesar, being with his army in the neighbourhood of the Alps, and having
ordered the towns to furnish supplies, the inhabitants of a fortified
stronghold there, called Larignum, trusting in the natural strength of
their defences, refused to obey his command. So the general ordered his
forces to the assault. In front of the gate of this stronghold there
was a tower, made of beams of this wood laid in alternating directions
at right angles to each other, like a funeral pyre, and built high, so
that they could drive off an attacking party by throwing stakes and
stones from the top. When it was observed that they had no other
missiles than stakes, and that these could not be hurled very far from
the wall on account of the weight, orders were given to approach and to
throw bundles of brushwood and lighted torches at this outwork. These
the soldiers soon got together.
16. The flames soon kindled the brushwood which lay about that wooden
structure and, rising towards heaven, made everybody think that the
whole pile had fallen. But when the fire had burned itself out and
subsided, and the tower appeared to view entirely uninjured, Caesar in
amazement gave orders that they should be surrounded with a palisade,
built beyond the range of missiles. So the townspeople were frightened
into surrendering, and were then asked where that wood came from which
was not harmed by fire. They pointed to trees of the kind under
discussion, of which there are very great numbers in that vicinity. And
so, as that stronghold was called Larignum, the wood was called larch.
It is transported by way of the Po to Ravenna, and is to be had in Fano,
Pesaro, Ancona, and the other towns in that neighbourhood. If there were
only a ready method of carrying this material to Rome, it would be of
the greatest use in buildings; if not for general purposes, yet at least
if the boards used in the eaves running round blocks of houses were made
of it, the buildings would be free from the danger of fire spreading
across to them, because such boards can neither take fire from flames or
from burning coals, nor ignite spontaneously.
17. The leaves of these trees are like those of the pine; timber from
them comes in long lengths, is as easily wrought in joiner's work as is
the clearwood of fir, and contains a liquid resin, of the colour of
Attic honey, which is good for consumptives.
With regard to the different kinds of timber, I have now explained of
what natural properties they appear to be composed, and how they were
produced. It remains to consider the question why the highland fir, as
it is called in Rome, is inferior, while the lowland fir is extremely
useful in buildings so far as durability is concerned; and further to
explain how it is that their bad or good qualities seem to be due to the
peculiarities of their neighbourhood, so that this subject may be
clearer to those who examine it.
CHAPTER X
HIGHLAND AND LOWLAND FIR
1. The first spurs of the Apennines arise from the Tuscan sea between
the Alps and the most distant borders of Tuscany. The mountain range
itself bends round and, almost touching the shores of the Adriatic in
the middle of the curve, completes its circuit by extending to the
strait on the other shore. Hence, this side of the curve, sloping
towards the districts of Tuscany and Campania, lies basking in the sun,
being constantly exposed to the full force of its rays all day. But the
further side, sloping towards the Upper Sea and having a northern
exposure, is constantly shrouded in shadowy darkness. Hence the trees
which grow on that side, being nourished by the moisture, not only
themselves attain to a very large size, but their fibre too, filled full
of moisture, is swollen and distended with abundance of liquid. When
they lose their vitality after being felled and hewn, the fibre retains
its stiffness, and the trees as they dry become hollow and frail on
account of their porosity, and hence cannot last when used in buildings.
2. But trees which grow in places facing the course of the sun are not
of porous fibre but are solid, being drained by the dryness; for the sun
absorbs moisture and draws it out of trees as well as out of the earth.
The trees in sunny neighbourhoods, therefore, being solidified by the
compact texture of their fibre, and not being porous from moisture, are
very useful, so far as durability goes, when they are hewn into timber.
Hence the lowland firs, being conveyed from sunny places, are better
than those highland firs, which are brought here from shady places.
3. To the best of my mature consideration, I have now treated the
materials which are necessary in the construction of buildings, the
proportionate amount of the elements which are seen to be contained in
their natural composition, and the points of excellence and defects of
each kind, so that they may be not unknown to those who are engaged in
building. Thus those who can follow the directions contained in this
treatise will be better informed in advance, and able to select, among
the different kinds, those which will be of use in their works.
Therefore, since the preliminaries have been explained, the buildings
themselves will be treated in the remaining books; and first, as due
order requires, I shall in the next book write of the temples of the
immortal gods and their symmetrical proportions.
BOOK III
INTRODUCTION
1. Apollo at Delphi, through the oracular utterance of his priestess,
pronounced Socrates the wisest of men. Of him it is related that he said
with sagacity and great learning that the human breast should have been
furnished with open windows, so that men might not keep their feelings
concealed, but have them open to the view. Oh that nature, following his
idea, had constructed them thus unfolded and obvious to the view! For if
it had been so, not merely the virtues and vices of the mind would be
easily visible, but also its knowledge of branches of study, displayed
to the contemplation of the eyes, would not need testing by
untrustworthy powers of judgement, but a singular and lasting influence
would thus be lent to the learned and wise. However, since they are not
so constructed, but are as nature willed them to be, it is impossible
for men, while natural abilities are concealed in the breast, to form a
judgement on the quality of the knowledge of the arts which is thus
deeply hidden. And if artists themselves testify to their own skill,
they can never, unless they are wealthy or famous from the age of their
studios, or unless they are also possessed of the public favour and of
eloquence, have an influence commensurate with their devotion to their
pursuits, so that people may believe them to have the knowledge which
they profess to have.
2. In particular we can learn this from the case of the sculptors and
painters of antiquity. Those among them who were marked by high station
or favourably recommended have come down to posterity with a name that
will last forever; for instance, Myron, Polycletus, Phidias, Lysippus,
and the others who have attained to fame by their art. For they acquired
it by the execution of works for great states or for kings or for
citizens of rank. But those who, being men of no less enthusiasm,
natural ability, and dexterity than those famous artists, and who
executed no less perfectly finished works for citizens of low station,
are unremembered, not because they lacked diligence or dexterity in
their art, but because fortune failed them; for instance, Teleas of
Athens, Chion of Corinth, Myager the Phocaean, Pharax of Ephesus, Boedas
of Byzantium, and many others. Then there were painters like Aristomenes
of Thasos, Polycles and Andron of Ephesus, Theo of Magnesia, and others
who were not deficient in diligence or enthusiasm for their art or in
dexterity, but whose narrow means or ill-luck, or the higher position of
their rivals in the struggle for honour, stood in the way of their
attaining distinction.
3. Of course, we need not be surprised if artistic excellence goes
unrecognized on account of being unknown; but there should be the
greatest indignation when, as often, good judges are flattered by the
charm of social entertainments into an approbation which is a mere
pretence. Now if, as Socrates wished, our feelings, opinions, and
knowledge gained by study had been manifest and clear to see, popularity
and adulation would have no influence, but men who had reached the
height of knowledge by means of correct and definite courses of study,
would be given commissions without any effort on their part. However,
since such things are not plain and apparent to the view, as we think
they should have been, and since I observe that the uneducated rather
than the educated are in higher favour, thinking it beneath me to engage
with the uneducated in the struggle for honour, I prefer to show the
excellence of our department of knowledge by the publication of this
treatise.
4. In my first book, Emperor, I described to you the art, with its
points of excellence, the different kinds of training with which the
architect ought to be equipped, adding the reasons why he ought to be
skilful in them, and I divided up the subject of architecture as a whole
among its departments, duly defining the limits of each. Next, as was
preëminent and necessary, I explained on scientific principles the
method of selecting healthy sites for fortified towns, pointed out by
geometrical figures the different winds and the quarters from which they
blow, and showed the proper way to lay out the lines of streets and rows
of houses within the walls. Here I fixed the end of my first book. In
the second, on building materials, I treated their various advantages in
structures, and the natural properties of which they are composed. In
this third book I shall speak of the temples of the immortal gods,
describing and explaining them in the proper manner.